That AD
May Read
Library Service for Blind and
Physically Handicapped People
Nation^ Library Service
fbrthe Blind and
Physical/Y Handicapped
The Library of Congress
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
Lyrasis IVIembers and Sloan Foundation
http://www.archive.org/details/thatallmayreadliOOIibr
ThatM
May Read
Library Service for Blind and
Physically Handicapped People
National Ubrary Service
for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped
The Library of Congress
Washington 1983
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
That all may read.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
Supt. of Docs, no.: LC 19.2:R22/2/981
1. Blind, Libraries for the. 2. Libraries and the
physically handicapped. L Library of Congress.
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped.
Z675.B6T48 027.6'63 81-607111
ISBN 0-8444-0375-X
Third Printing, July 1984
Contents
Preface v
Frank Kurt Cylke
Part One
History and Standards 1
Eunice Lovejoy
Federal Legislation and Agencies Whicli Serve
Blind and Physically Handicapped People 25
Irvin P. Schloss
A History of the National Library Service to
Blind and Handicapped Individuals 65
Part Two
Users 221
Hylda Kamisar
Materials and Publishers 233
Mary Jack Wintle and Catherine Archer
Reading Aids and Devices 253
Leslie L. Clark
State Programs: A State Librarian's Perspective 271
Anthony Miele
The NLS Network 279
Karen Renninger and Thomas J. Martin
Part Three
School Library Media Services 287
Ruth A. Velieman and Joan A. Miller
Public Libraries 309
Donna Dziedzic
That All May Read
Academic Library Services 327
John Vasi
Training and Research in Librarianship 347
Kenneth L. Ferstl and Merrillyn C. Gibson
Part Four
In Other Countries 381
M. Joy Lewis
International Cooperation 411
Frank Kurt Cylke
Appendix
Free Matter: Nearly a Century of Change 425
Judith M. Dixon and Alfred D. Hagle
Bibliography 431
Index 507
Preface
Provision of library service to blind and physically handicapped indi-
viduals is an ever-developing art/science requiring a knowledge of
individual needs, a mastery of information science processes and
techniques, and an awareness of the plethora of available print and
nonprint resources.
This book is intended to bring together a composite overview of the
needs of individuals unable to use print resources and to describe
current and historic practices designed to meet these needs. The com-
pleted work provides students, practicing professionals, and others
interested in the field a solid base from which they may refine their
thinking, modify appropriate techniques, and develop more appropri-
ate transfer mechanisms.
Behind every publication of this type is an army of workers who
contribute to the myriad of professional, technical, and clerical re-
quirements. It is never possible to identify all those who assisted;
however, as always, it is necessary to thank those who played a
crucial role. Therefore, especial appreciation is directed to:
Dr. Elizabeth W. Stone, Dean of the School of Library and
Information Science, at the Catholic University of America;
Mary Jack Wintle, Assistant Director of the National Library
Sevice for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS), who
served as general coordinator of the project;
The staff of the NLS Publication and Media Section, who
prepared the manuscript for publication, calling upon Library of
Congress and network staff for facts, figures, and interpretations
and upon professionals working in the field for critical comments
as appropriate; and most sincerely to:
(V)
That All May Read
Marjorie Neumann, the technical editor. Anyone who has at-
tempted a project such as this is aware of the significance of
competent professional, technical editing.
I am pleased with this book. I am sure that, following a reading,
you will also be pleased — and will keep it ever ready for consultation.
Frank Kurt Cylke
Director
National Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped
Library of Congress
August, 1982
(VI)
Part One
History and Standards
Eunice Lovejoy
Fifty-three years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence,
this country's first public effort was made in training and educating
blind persons. In 1829 the Massachusetts legislature passed the
enabling legislation for the New England Asylum for the Blind, later
to become the Perkins School for the Blind, at Watertown, Massachu-
setts.' The New York Institution for the Blind was founded two years
later. In 1832 both schools were opened and the education of blind
children also began in Philadelphia. By the end of the nineteenth
century, all but a few states had established such schools.^
Every school for the blind had a collection of books in some form of
tactile print. The director of the Perkins School, Dr. Samuel Gridley
Howe, devised an angular modification of roman letters in upper and
lower case, which was known as Boston Line Type. The Acts of the "
Apostles was produced in 1835, followed by the Old and New Testa-
ments. The textbooks produced at Perkins were used in many other
schools for the blind. The Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction
of the Blind at Overbrook in Philadelphia developed a similar form of
type and is credited with producing the first embossed book in
America, the Gospel of Mark.
Dr. Simon Pollak, one of the founders of the Missouri School for
the Blind, started using Louis Braille's system of six-dot cells in his
school soon after the official adoption of braille in Paris in 1854. By
the early 1880s, its use had spread from Missouri to most of the
schools for the blind, and the Howe Memorial Press in Boston, a
Perkins School affiliate, was producing textbooks in a form known as
American braille.
In 1868, William B. Wait, superintendent of the New York Institu-
tion for the Blind, introduced New York Point, another dot code. This
was adopted by the American Printing House for the Blind, in Louis-
Eunice Lovejoy is a library consultant, services to older people and to people with disabilities.
That All May Read
ville, Kentucky, which became the official printer for school books in
the United States in 1879, when Congress passed the Act to Promote
the Education of the Blind.
A form of type which was more acceptable to people who had lost
their sight as adults was Moon type, a simplified version of roman
capital letters first produced in England in 1847 and introduced in the
United States in 1880. Older people, vhose touch is often less sensi-
tive, found its large, bold letters easier to read.^
Library Service to Blind Adults
After students left school, they continued to need reading materials,
and many schools made their libraries available to nonstudents in their
localities. A few even presented books to students when they left
school. Yet the demand for reading material was not satisfied, and
librarians in public libraries began to respond to the requests for
books.'*
H. M. Utley, librarian of the Detroit Public Library, spoke about
books for blind readers at the twentieth general meeting of the Ameri-
can Library Association (ALA), held at Lakewood-on-Chautauqua,
New York, in July 1898. He said that the different forms of type made
it difficult for a library to choose a system to satisfy all its users. In
1896, he reported, his library purchased sixty-six volumes printed in
braille and friends donated forty-four volumes in Boston or Philadel-
phia type. Circulation increased temporarily, but, even though the
collection was well publicized, only seventy-seven books circulated in
1897 because readers had read everything of interest to them. Utley
suggested that the solution might be for one library to supply books to
all the readers in a state or in a large section of it.^
His audience must have included a number of concerned librarians
because a report in the April 1904 issue of Public Libraries showed at
least eighteen public libraries in large cities were serving blind readers
in the beginning of the twentieth century.® Like the Boston Public
Library, which became the first library for the blind after it received a
gift of eight embossed books in 1868, libraries in other cities acquired
gift books from blind readers, friends, schools, or publishers. Few
were able to purchase additional titles. The Free Library of Philadel-
History and Standards
phia took over the book-circulating function of the Philadelphia Home
Teaching Society and Free Circulating Library for the Blind in 1899.
The New York Free Circulating Library for the Blind opened in 1896,
and its 1 ,649-volume collection and 492 pieces of music became part
of the New York Public Library in 1903 . A large room was assigned
to the collection, and staff previously responsible for it continued their
home teaching and delivery of books to readers who were unable to go
to the library. A state library for the blind population was authorized
by the New York Regents of the University in 1896, and a plan was
established for coordinating services for all libraries for blind people
in the state and for reaching all potential readers.
When the new Library of Congress building was opened in October
1897, a special reading room for blind people was established. Em-
bossed books and music were circulated, and readers were asked to
name the books and the style of printing they preferred. One hour of
oral readings each day, a weekly recital, art gallery visits, garden
parties, dramatic entertainments, river excursions, and teas were part
of The Library's program.
The Trader sisters, Georgia and Florence, raised money and or-
ganized the Cincinnati Library Society for the Blind in 1901; the
public library prepared the books for circulation and provided an area
for readings and entertainment. In San Francisco, a ladies' auxiliary
was organized in 1902 to establish a reading room for blind persons in
the public library. There books were circulated, adults were taught to
read, write, and type, and each morning the newspaper was read aloud
for an hour.
The American Library Association: A Forum for Concern
Emma R. Neisser, from the Free Library of Philadelphia, presented a
paper on books for blind readers at the annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Library Association held in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island, in
1906.^ The following year the Committee on Library Work with the
Blind made its first report at the ALA annual meeting, held at
Asheville, North Carolina. The postal laws had been amended in 1904
to permit the free mailing of books for blind individuals, alleviating a
financial problem that libraries faced when readers from other cities
That All May Read
requested books. As a result, the State Library Commission of Mary-
land agreed to pay the Enoch Pratt Free Library of Baltimore fifteen
cents for each book circulated. The New York Public Library was
circulating books freely in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
In Virginia the state library often sent books beyond state borders,
while the Missouri School for the Blind at Saint Louis and the Indiana
State Library circulated books to residents within their respective
states.*^ In 1907 Asa Don Dickinson, a member of the ALA Com-
mittee on Library Work with the Blind, articulated the increased con-
cern of librarians about the inadequacy of materials when he wrote:
"We should have a central library, where can be found in one place all
the books that have ever been printed in raised type. Any one of these
books should be available to every blind person in the country. . . .
Under the present system (or want of system), each district has either
no books at all, or an insufficient collection which has largely outlived
its usefulness in the immediate neighborhood. ' ' ^
The committee was also concerned that librarians were involved in
nonlibrary types of activities, such as teaching blind people to read
and write and providing social activities for them. Since other groups
within communities were assuming responsibility for meeting some of
the needs of blind adults, the committee recommended that the ALA
appoint a committee "to report on the progress of work for the blind
strictly germane to libraries and to confer with such societies as shall
foster the general interests of the blind."'"
In succeeding reports, the ALA Committee on Library Work with
the Blind continually expressed concern over the multiplicity of types
in which books were published. Existing libraries'grew and new cen-
ters were added, but some librarians felt more were needed. The lack
of uniform statistics was seen as a problem. New publications, both
embossed and in print, were listed each year. In 1914, the committee
reported that library schools (the New York State Library School, the
New York Public Library School, the Pratt Institute, the Syracuse
Library School, and Simmons College) devoted one or two lecture
hours each year to the service and that students visited nearby schools
and libraries for blind people."
In 1915, the ALA published the first handbook for library services
for blind individuals, Library Work with the Blind. Mary Chamber-
4
History and Standards
lain, from the New York State Library, introduced her guide by stat-
ing, "Now, when the whole world is taking so keen an interest in the
welfare and education of the blind, it is hard to realize that twenty-five
years ago practically no formal provision had been made for their
reading outside of the small collection of books in the schools or
'asylums for the blind' as they were often called."'^ She advised
librarians to select most books in the type which was taught at schools
for the blind in the state; to become familiar with different embossed
type systems; to seek out readers through personal inquiry and visita-
tions; to cooperate closely with schools, state commissions charged
with the welfare of the blind population, and local associations or-
ganized for social purposes; and to instruct new readers in the use of
the library. In addition, Chamberlain gave suggestions for classifying
materials and circulating and shelving books. '^
The long drawn out "battle of the types" ended in this country in
June 1918. Readers, even more than librarians, were frustrated by the
multiplicity of type systems. The first organized complaint came from
a group of blind people and others concerned about educational op-
portunities who met in Saint Louis in 1895. Ten years later this group
became the American Association of Workers for the Blind and ap-
pointed the first Uniform Type Committee, which included repre-
sentatives of libraries, printing presses, and home teaching societies.
After years of investigation and attempts to work out a compromise,
the committee recommended the use of a grade 1 V2 braille, which
utilized some of the contractions of the British grade 2 system. Both
the American Association of Workers for the Blind and the American
Association of Instructors of the Blind approved this recommenda-
tion." While this decision promised a solution in the future, it meant
that — for the time being — librarians had to add one more form of type
to their collections. Lucille Goldthwaite, librarian for blind individu-
als at the New York Public Library, pointed out that many "disgrun-
tled" readers who were dependent on type which would no longer be
produced "dropped from the [borrowers] lists forever, constituting a
sortof 'lost battalion' in the battle of the types. "'^
In the First World War, the United States had a relatively "small
number of blinded casualties. . . . The commonly accepted estimate
was 450.""^ At the 1920 annual conference of the ALA, at Colorado
That All May Read
Springs, Lt. Frank Schoble spoke for himself and other blinded vet-
erans: "A blind soldier can be trained to read, but of how much
greater value that training would be if sufficient desirable books were
available. He will want books to read when he gets out of the service
because, in many cases, he has come in contact with books for the first
time in his life."'^
American Foundation for the Blind, an Ally
In 1924 the ALA's Committee on Work with the Blind reported the
benefits of working with the American Foundation for the Blind
(AFB), which was created just three years earlier by joint action of the
American Association of Workers for the Blind and the American
Association of Instructors of the Blind. Through the efforts of the
foundation. Congress appropriated money to the Veterans Bureau for
the publication of braille books for blinded veterans. The foundation
also agreed to include the "Booklist of Revised Braille," published for
several years by the ALA, in its Outlook for the Blind.
In 1924 the committee also reminded librariansof their responsi-
bility to protect eyesight and recommended that every library display
an ALA-published list of books printed in type somewhat larger than
average, Books for Tired Eyes, compiled by the Minneapolis Public
Library."*
At the urging of the committee, the AFB made a study of library
work for blind people in the United States and Canada during 1928
and 1929. Robert B. Irwin, executive director of the AFB, reported
his preliminary findings at the 1929 annual meeting of the ALA. In his
report, he noted that sixty to eighty libraries had collections of em-
bossed books, which were expensive, clumsy, and occupied much
space. The blind population the libraries served was usually small,
and the books were usually relegated to a back room when they had
been read and were no longer in demand. And, because of apparent
lack of interest, new titles were not purchased. But, in 1904, when
Congress allowed books for blind people to be mailed free of charge,
patrons began applying for these books by mail. Irwin stated:
A few progressive libraries placed attendants in charge of these collections. These
attendants encouraged the mail order business and gradually built up a large clientele
History and Standards
spread in many instances over several states. This process went on until today we have
about fifteen libraries which have one or more attendants giving full time to this work.
Libraries having no regular attendant to promote this activity were unable to handle
satisfactorily the mail requests, and in time practically discontinued all library work
for the blind. Today more than ninety percent of the books lent by libraries for the
blind are called for by mail or telephone, and practically all are sent out through the
postoffice.'^
Creation of a National Service
As a result of this study, the AFB with its advisory committee from
the ALA recommended that the federal government should supply free
books for blind persons to a selected list of geographically well-
distributed libraries. Ruth Pratt, congresswoman from New York, and
Reed Smoot, senator from Utah, introduced identical bills into the
House and Senate authorizing an annual appropriation of $75,000 to
the Library of Congress for books for blind adults, to be distributed by
regional centers. At the same time Congressman Crail of California
introduced a bill which would provide $100,000 annually to be appro--
priated to the Braille Institute of America for the purchase of braille
books to be distributed to regional libraries in proportion to the
number of blind readers they served. The Braille Institute was a new
nonprofit organization created by Robert Atkinson, owner of the Uni-
versal Braille Press, in Los Angeles.^" Representative Lister Hill of
Alabama introduced a third bill, calling for $100,000 to be expended
for the same purpose under the direction of the ALA.^' Helen Keller
was one of the prominent people who appeared before the House
Committee on the Library in support of the Pratt bill. With the ap-
propriation raised to $100,000, it passed the House on February 28,
1931 — the Senate had passed the Smoot bill in January — and was
signed into law by President Hoover on March 3, 1931.
On July 1 , 193 1 , the Books for the Adult Blind Project began
operation and the Library of Congress placed an experimental order
for fifteen braille titles from four presses which had submitted pro-
posals: the American Printing House for the Blind, the Universal
Braille Press, the American Brotherhood of Free Reading for the
Blind, at Los Angeles, and the Clovernook Printing House for the
Blind, at Cincinnati, Ohio. After consultation with the ALA and the
That All May Read
AFB, nineteen libraries, including the Library of Congress, were
designated regional distribution centers. ^^
Reflecting on the new law, Howard Haycraft, president of the
H. W. Wilson Company, said, "While it may be said that enactment
of the appropriation marks a turning point in library work with the
blind, the new status is evidenced not so much by any startling change
in methods as by quiet expansion along established lines and increased
efficiency and usefulness of existing organization and equipment. '"^^
Lucille A. Goldthwaite applauded the move to centralization, pointing
out that scattered collections made books less attainable, because
readers soon read everything in the small local collection. She felt
there was still a role for the general librarian to help "by acquiring
accurate information, by locating blind readers, and by imparting the
information to them. "^^
Two important events altered the tide of library service in 1932. A
conference of representatives from America and England met in Lon-
don and adopted the common form of braille now used in all English-
speaking countries. And the AFB established a laboratory for the
development of "talking books"; the following year it produced a
long-playing, unbreakable disc and a machine on which it could be
played. In addition, postal laws were amended in 1934 to allow the
free mailing of talking books and in 1935 Congress increased its
annual appropriation to the Library of Congress national program for
blind adults from $100,000 to $175,000, with $75,000 to be used for
sound-reproduction records. ^^
Problems of an Expanding Service
With the many changes in the service, guidelines were needed. The
second edition of Mary Chamberlain's short Library Work with the
Blind was published in 1930, but it did not satisfy the need for a
handbook describing the duties of the librarian for blind readers.
Martha Stark, branch librarian of the Wolfner Memorial Library for
the Blind, in Saint Louis, developed a plan for such a book when she
was chairman of the ALA's Committee on Library Work with the
Blind in the mid-1930s. Her successor, Carol Alderson, senior librar-
ian of the Blind Section, California State Library, at Sacramento,
8
History and Standards
received the approval of the committee to survey the twenty-seven
libraries receiving material through the Library of Congress, as well as
six other large libraries, including the Canadian Institute for the Blind.
Sample forms were requested and this information was to be compiled
by the committee in the form of a handbook.-® At the ALA meeting in
Milwaukee in 1942, the committee reported that the manuscript had
finally been completed and sent to the ALA Editorial Committee for
approval for publication. The Executive Board accepted it. However,
the annual conference for 1943 was canceled because of war condi-
tions, and the committee report to the ALA regretfully announced that
the Editorial Committee found it necessary to abandon the project of
publishing the handbook."
Talking books, the machines on which to play them, and braille
books were provided by the Library of Congress, but the burden of
operational support fell on the regional libraries. Alison B. Alessios,
retired librarian. Library for the Blind, New York Public Library,
wrote of some of the frustrations experienced by librarians eighteen
years after the national service was established. First of all, she wrote,
advising the Library of Congress on book selection was difficult for
librarians isolated from print books. Furthermore, libraries were in
inaccessible, often hazardous locations and were inadequate and
crowded, discouraging readers from visiting them. Librarians had to
perform much routine work, such as keeping records of books sent to
readers and checking the condition of talking books as they were
returned. In addition, financial support from both states and cities was
inadequate. The collection provided by the Library of Congress had to
be augmented by volunteer-produced materials in braille or recorded
form, the latter done on the Soundscriber. And finally, she noted, use
of Library of Congress materials was restricted to adults, even though
blind children also needed books. ^®
In 195 1 , the Library of Congress held the first of its continuing
national conferences, bringing together 1 1 1 representatives of the
groups which provided reading materials for blind readers. Although
it could not solve all the problems that had arisen due to the rapid
expansion of library service for blind individuals since the federal
program began twenty years earlier, "the conference was effective in
that it developed and directed attention to the areas in which efforts for
That All May Read
improvement should first be concentrated."^* On July 5, 1952, one
problem was solved when the law which made blind children eligible
for service from the Library of Congress became effective.
Librarians were not alone in their concern over the inadequate
financing of regional libraries and the twin burdens of storage and
distribution of books. In 1955, M. Robert Bamett, executive director
of the AFB , declared: ' 'This is a grave problem and unless some
decisive steps are taken on a national basis soon, the entire program
for providing reading matter for blind persons may become so riddled
with inefficiency and low quality service that even service to small
numbers of the total potential of readers will be badly interrupted. ' '
Accordingly, the AFB undertook a study "to assess the administrative
and professional effectiveness of the special library facilities and pro-
grams established to serve blind individuals." Four activities were
planned: a survey of the existing twenty-eight regional libraries, a
survey of the more than fifty agencies responsible for the distribution
and maintenance of talking-book machines, a survey of the needs of
blind persons for library service, and the development of standards to
"measure and advance the professional level of library services for
blind persons."^"
Francis R. St. John, chief librarian of the Brooklyn Public Library,
directed the first two surveys and prepared a comprehensive report.
His recommendations covered financing, organization, staffing,
physical conditions, records, book selection, communication,
machine repair, technical problems, publicity for the program, and the
Library of Congress publications which informed readers of new
books, Talking Book Topics and Braille Book Review. St. John con-
cluded that there was "a demonstrated need for a set of basic stan-
dards for library service for the blind. "^'
Recognizing the urgent need to improve a critical situation, the
Library of Congress Division for the Blind and the ALA Round Table
on Library Service to the Blind, a successor to the Committee on
Library Work with the Blind, jointly developed a minimal set of
standards for regional libraries. This five-page publication was dis-
tributed in 1961.''2
That same year, the AFB conducted the third part of its study of
library services, a survey of blind readers. It was found that most
10
History and Standards
readers were satisfied with the work done by their regional hbraries.
Only 15 percent reported any difficulties in using the mail service,
while 25 percent suggested that the service could be improved by
making more books available, simplifying the procedures for ordering
them, and improving the condition of the books. ^^
The Development of Standards
During the 1940s and 1950s there had been a ground swell of concern
about the accountability of voluntary health and welfare agencies. A
Rockefeller Foundation-sponsored study concluded, in what was
popularly called the Hamlin Report after the study's director, that
citizens needed more information about the groups they were asked to
support. On the advice of a committee appointed to recommend what
action should be taken concerning work with blind people, the AFB
created an autonomous Commission on Standards and Accreditation
of Services for the Blind (COMSTAC). In February 1964, technical
study committees, with seven to fourteen members each, were ap-
pointed to develop standards for twelve areas of service. ^^
Ralph Shaw, dean of library activities at the University of Hawaii,
was the chairman of the committee of nationally known experts which
developed library standards. An early draft of the report of this com-
mittee was mailed to 400 librarians, heads of educational institutions,
and interested individuals. Successive drafts were reviewed by the
various divisions of the ALA — the Library Administration Division,
the Adult Services Division, the American Association of School
Librarians, the Association of Hospital and Institution Libraries, and
the Public Library Association. On July 14, 1966, the Library Ad-
ministration Division of the ALA officially adopted the final draft of
the standards in the name of the ALA. Upon completion of the stan-
dards, the AFB had concluded its four-part study.
One of the basic principles underlying the standards was that "re-
sponsibility for blind and visually handicapped readers does not stop
at the federal and state levels. Since blindness knows no geographical
barriers, any community, school, college, business, profession or
other group may be the setting in which a blind person functions. "^^
Accordingly, the standards delineated the responsibilities of the federal
11
That All May Read
level of service, state and regional libraries, community libraries,
school libraries, and libraries of agencies serving blind and visually
handicapped persons. Additionally there were standards for equip-
ment and physical facilities and an appendix suggesting staffing pat-
terns for state and regional libraries. Eric Moon, editor of the Library
Journal, hailed the standards as "a bold document which, if it finds
sufficient enthusiastic support at all levels, can do much to remove
another group from the ranks of the 'underprivileged' library
users. "^®
Library Services for Other Handicapped People
At the same time that library services were being developed for blind
people, they were also being developed for people with other dis-
abilities. World War I had brought an awareness of the library needs
of sick and physically disabled persons. The Department of War had
asked the ALA to establish libraries in base hospitals where disabled
veterans in this country were being treated. In some cases the aid of
the local public library was enlisted. Librarians who had served hos-
pitals overseas came home to establish libraries in hospitals in their
own communities.^^
While the ALA Committee on Libraries in Institutions for De-
pendents, Defectives and Delinquents, which was organized in 1915,
included a "chief of library work in hospitals, "^^ hospital librarians
became more visible as a separate round table in 1919.^® In 1944 the
Division of Hospital Libraries was created, and in 1956 it merged with
the Institutions Division to form the Association of Hospital and In-
stitution Libraries. This organization brought together librarians who
were serving handicapped people in hospitals, special schools, nurs-
ing homes, and other instimtions, as well as in their own homes.
The first organized program of home delivery to shut-ins had been
reported by the public library in Springfield, Massachusetts, in
1901,^" but it was the Cleveland Public Library's service, planned by
Clara Lucioli, which provided a model for similar services in America
and abroad.^' A study of programs for homebound handicapped indi-
viduals, prepared for the U.S. Congress in 1955, reported that "many
of the large public libraries in cities have extension departments which
12
History and Standards
serve persons in hospitals, special schools, other instiuitions, and the
homebound. Some of this activity is carried on through either deposits
of library materials in the institutions themselves or the regularly
scheduled visits of bookmobiles. Talking books for the blind and
machines which project books on the ceiling for the bedridden are
available from some libraries."'*^
At the annual meeting of the ALA, held in Washington, D.C. , in
1959, the Adult Services Division and the Office for Adult Education
cosponsored an Institute on Library Service to an Aging Population.
Meeting every morning at eight o'clock, it attracted nearly three
hundred librarians and trustees. "Helping Readers Who Present Spe-
cial Problems" was the topic of one session in which methods for
serving the visually and physically handicapped were presented. Spe-
cial equipment for bedridden and blind individuals was displayed, and
the Association of Hospital and Institution Libraries distributed copies
of a list of reading aids for handicapped people, which was compiled
by a subcommittee of the Audio-Visual Committee of the ALA.**^
Because of continued demand, the Association of Hospital and Insti-
tution Libraries updated and expanded the list five times during the
next nine years.
Both the April 1961 and the October 1964 issues of ALA Bulletin
were devoted to hospital and institution library services, sensitizing
the entire library profession to the needs of and opportunities for
serving people in special settings. The Children's Services Division of
the ALA showed its concern for handicapped children when it created
a Committee on Library Service to Exceptional Children in 1964. This
growing awareness of the library needs of disabled and institution-
alized persons was reflected in federal legislation passed two years
later.
Tide-turning and More Growth
In its second session, the Eighty-ninth Congress passed two bills
which immeasurably aided libraries in meeting the needs of people
with disabilities. On July 19, 1966, President Johnson signed Public
Law 89-5 1 1 , the Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA)
Amendments of 1966, which authorized funds under Title IV-B to
13
That All May Read
assist state library agencies in establishing or improving services to
physically handicapped persons (including those blind or visually
handicapped) certified by competent authority as unable to read or use
conventional printed materials as a result of physical limitations.
Under Title IV-A of the act, funds were provided for library services
to state institutions, including those serving handicapped people.'*'*
On July 30, 1966, President Johnson signed a second bill, Public
Law 89-522, which amended the Pratt-Smoot Act so that physically
and visually impaired people who could not use normal printed mate-
rials were eligible to borrow recorded books and playback equipment
under the Library of Congress program for blind readers. Some of the
impetus for passing this legislation, which had first been introduced
several years before, undoubtedly came from the World War U,
Korea, and Vietnam veterans who had survived their battlefield in-
juries because of modern technology and miracle drugs. Speaking at
the hearings on several bills with the same intent. Dr. L. Quincy
Mumford, the Librarian of Congress, testified that in addition to an
estimated 400,000 blind people eligible for the service, there were
600,000 nearly blind persons, 4,700 persons who had lost both arms
or the use of them, 8,000 without fingers and toes, 1,600 in iron lungs
or other respiratory devices, and 750,000 suffering from cerebral
palsy, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, Parkinson's disease,
and other crippling ailments.'*^
Truly, 1966 was the dawn of a new age in library services for blind
and physically handicapped people. At the time there were thirty-two
regional libraries for blind readers. The Library of Congress Division
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, as it was renamed to fit its
new responsibilities, immediately started planning for the establish-
ment of new regional libraries to serve the larger readership. It set
about systematically strengthening its collections, increasing the
number of copies of titles, and reexamining and revising its proce-
dures to accommodate the anticipated rapid expansion.^® For the first
time, it actually promoted the service. Within five years, fourteen
additional regional libraries were opened.
Under the regulations for the administration of LSCA funds, each
state library agency had to develop a state plan with the help of a
14
History and Standards
representative advisory committee. Some states, like California and
Pennsylvania, conducted statewide surveys of library services for
blind and physically handicapped readers which they used as a basis
for a comprehensive plan.^^ Federal funds had to be matched with
state or local funds, and the literature for the next decade reflects the
variety of services initiated with the assistance of federal money or
stimulated by a well-publicized project. By 1971 Eleanor Brown was
able to compile twenty-six pages of library services for physically
handicapped people in Library Sen'ice to the Disadvantaged.*^ More
recently such programs have found a place in two editions of the U.S.
Office of Education publication Library Programs Worth Knowing
About. *^
In many states, LSCA money was used to improve the quality of
service in the regional libraries; in some it was used to create regional
libraries. In Kansas, it was used to set up subregional libraries to serve
Kansas readers formerly served by the Wolfner Memorial Library in
Saint Louis. Projects designed to inform eligible readers about ser-
vices included the thirty-minute film That All May Read produced by
the Delaware State Library for showing throughout the state. A
"talking bookmobile," outfitted with materials for the handicapped,
toured Arizona. The New York Public Library produced spot an-
nouncements and played them on local radio stations. It became a
common practice to involve public libraries in demonstrating talking
books; these libraries frequently had small collections and talking-
book machines. *°
Large-print books for adults, first produced in England in 1964 by
Ulverscroft, reached the American market in 1965, the same year that
Keith Jennison offered for sale the first commercial American books
in large type. LSCA funds enabled libraries to purchase collections of
these, as well as recorded and braille materials. The New York Public
Library conducted a demonstration project to test the need for, interest
in, and use of large-print materials.^' The R.R. Bowker Company's
1970 edition of Large Type Books in Print listed 1 ,200 titles and
included a directory of publishers from whom they could be obtained.
The fourth edition, published in 1980, contains over 4,000 titles
supplied by more than sixty-five publishers.
15
That All May Read
Many libraries used federal funds to initiate services to homebound
people and individuals in hospitals and nursing homes. ^^ The Librar-
ian and the Patient points out the arrangements made between local
libraries and institutions and the resources which became available to
patients with the expansion of the federal laws.*^ The freedom to use
both talking books and large-print materials with visually and physi-
cally impaired readers enhanced the development of this service.
While in the past only physicians were permitted to certify readers'
eligibility, now this could be done by librarians and other profes-
sionals.
In 1965 the Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County,
Ohio, was chosen by the ALA's Committee on Library Services to
Exceptional Children as the site for a two-year program to demon-
strate library services to exceptional children. LSCA money funded
demonstration services and the production of a 16-mm color film
entitled Reaching Out, which described the program.^*
Training institutes like the 1969 institute on library service for the
noninstitutionalized handicapped at the University of Michigan
School of Library Science, funded under Title II-B of the Higher
Education Act of 1965, and statewide workshops funded under Title
IV of the LSCA added impetus to the movement to serve handicapped
people. So did the work of Margaret Hannigan, LSCA coordinator,
Title IV, Division of Library Programs in the U.S. Office of Educa-
tion. In 1970, Title IV was absorbed into an older Title I of the act.
Beginning in the early 1970s, when the Kansas and Illinois regional
libraries placed collections of materials in local public libraries and
arranged for them to serve all the readers in a specific geographical
area, the Library of Congress encouraged the development of subre-
gional libraries. ^^ This trend toward decentralization was consistent
with the provision of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which specified
that recipients of federal funds must take care not to isolate or concen-
trate handicapped persons in settings away from nonhandicapped pro-
gram participants.^® That act and the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act, which Congress passed in 1975, reflected the increased
concern on the part of handicapped people and their families that they
should not be treated as second-class citizens.
16
History and Standards
Need for New Standards
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, members of the ALA Round Table
on Library Service to the Blind, at the urging of the ALA headquarters
staff, started to consider restructuring their interest group. By charter,
the Round Table was restricted to library service for blind readers.
However, the national program had been extended to physically
handicapped people in 1966. In 1974, the Round Table joined with the
Association of Hospital and Institution Libraries Division of the ALA
to form the new Health and Rehabilitative Library Services Division
(HRLSD). The Library Service to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped Section was established within this division."
One of the first official actions taken by the membership of the new
section was to declare obsolete the standards for library service
adopted by the Library Administration Division of the ALA in 1966.*®
The 1966 standards emphasized centralized services, while the current
trend was toward decentralization and provision of service at the local
level. Furthermore, the standards were too limited in scope, applying-
only to library service for people who were blind or visually handi-
capped, not those with physical disabilities. At their 1976 midwinter
meeting, the Executive Committee of the Library Service to the Blind
and Physically Handicapped Section recommended that the HRLSD
Board be asked to accept leadership in creating ALA standards for
libraries for blind and physically handicapped readers.^*
The standards which were developed by the Committee to Review
Standards for Library Service to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped addressed the library services provided by the Library of Con-
gress and the regional and subregional libraries within the national
network. The eight-person committee, headed by Katherine Prescott,
retired head of the Cleveland regional library for the blind and physi-
cally handicapped, began work in July 1977. In March 1978 it distrib-
uted a preliminary draft of standards to elicit the reactions of users,
librarians, professionals in allied disciplines, and volunteers. A public
meeting, focusing on this draft, was held at the ALA conference in
June 1978. The following September, the committee met to rewrite
the standards, which were mailed to Library Service to the Blind and
17
That All May Read
Physically Handicapped Section members for a mail vote of approval.
The final draft was approved on January 7, 1979, by the Association
of Specialized and Cooperative Library Agencies (ASCLA), which
represented a merger of the HRLSD with the Association of State
Library Agencies in 1978.^°
At the annual meeting of the ALA in 1978, the president of the
ASCLA called a meeting of librarians representing different types of
libraries to start planning for the development of guidelines for service
to blind and physically handicapped readers in state libraries, public
libraries, elementary and secondary school libraries, academic li-
braries, special libraries, and libraries in institutions, hospitals, and
nursing homes. The association is continuing to explore ways of ac-
complishing this task.
The useful life of the 1979 standards probably will be even shorter
than that of the 1966 standards. Anticipating the impact of radio
reading services, automated circulation systems, and electronic read-
ing aids, the committee which developed the network standards rec-
ommended that new standards be formulated within five years.®'
ASCLA has appointed an ad hoc committee which is reviewing these
standards and will make recommendations for their revision.
In the fall of 1980, the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped, as the Library of Congress program is now
called, contracted with the Battelle Columbus Laboratories in Colum-
bus, Ohio, to develop and implement a method for evaluating the
National Library Service and network libraries against the standards.
An advisory group which includes consumer, network, and ALA
representatives is an important part of this two-year project.
Support of Other Groups
The role of the producers of materials, both the larger sources — like
the American Printing House for the Blind, Clovernook Printing
House, and Recording for the Blind with its network of volunteer
groups throughout the United States — and the small local groups of
volunteers, should be acknowledged. Without their support there
would be no library service for blind and physically handicapped
readers. In addition to producing the materials, the American Printing
18
History and Standards
House has maintained a union catalog of volunteer-produced books
and instructional materials for the school-aged reader.^^
Volunteers have contributed to the service, from the late 1800s,
when, singly or in groups, they were organizing libraries for blind
people, until the present, when they are involved in every facet of the
service. The Telephone Pioneers of America, an organization of cur-
rent and retired telephone employees, has repaired and adjusted
talking-book machines and cassette players since 1960. In some
communities members have also delivered and demonstrated
machines to new readers.
Support has come from other federal agencies besides the Library of
Congress. In July 1970, Congress created a National Commission on
Libraries and Information Science, an independent agency responsible
for advising the president and the Congress on the implementation of a
national policy for meeting the library and information needs of the
people of the United States. In a document which provides the frame-
work for a national program, the commission recognized that more
than six million blind and physically handicapped people in the coun- .
try need materials in special formats. While it commended the Library
of Congress for its work, it also recommended that more effort be
made to seek out and serve persons who are eligible for service, that
the limited resources available be utilized more effectively, that the
quantity and quality of materials be increased, and that attention be
directed "toward the continued increase in the number of appropriate
circulation outlets, so that handicapped persons may be served more
adequately by their local libraries."®^
Four years after the appointment of the national commission, the
Ninety-third Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing the presi-
dent to call a White House Conference on Libraries and Information
Services "to develop recommendations for the further improvement
of the Nation's libraries and information centers and their use by the
public."*'^ To the national commission was delegated responsibility
for giving technical assistance to states and territories, enabling them
to organize and conduct meetings of citizens from all walks of life to
focus on ideas for improving library and information services.
Between September 15, 1977, and July 20, 1979, fifty-eight pre-
conferences were held in the states, the territories, and the District of
19
That All May Read
Columbia and among the Ameincan Indians. Recommendations for
improved library services to handicapped people were made at fifty-
three of these meetings.®^ In November 1979 more than 650 delegates
from all parts of the country attended the White House Conference on
Library and Information Services, held in Washington, D.C. They
approved several resolutions specifically concerned with disabled per-
sons and incorporated recommendations for service to this group into
others concerning topics such as public awareness and training, re-
search, and development. In mid-September 1980, an ad hoc "Com-
mittee of 1 18," consisting of two delegates from each of the states and
territories, the District of Columbia, federal libraries, and Native
Americans, met in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to develop a plan to
implement the White House Conference resolutions. Meanwhile,
groups within many of the states are mustering support for recommen-
dations which must be carried out at the state and local level.
The history of library service to blind and physically handicapped
readers has been a story of many people working together. Among
these, the most important have been the readers. There is evidence of
this from the time young Louis Braille devised a workable code for
translating the written word into a form he could read, until as recently
as today when a current reader calls his library to protest receiving a
book he has not requested.
The history reflects not only the growing recognition that blind and
physically handicapped people have the same interests, intellectual
capacity, and ambitions as other members of society but also the
determination that they enjoy the same benefits.
And the history reflects a constant tension among a need, the struc-
ture for filling that need, and the financial support for the structure.
The structure at the present moment tends to be returning to a decen-
tralized system of service, with looser controls from the federal level.
This can succeed only if the quality of service to readers is maintained
and adequate financial support is given at the local level.
NOTES
1 . See Gabriel Farrell, The Story of Blindness (Cambridge, Mass.; Harvard Uni-
20
History and Standards
versity Press, 1956), pp. 41-52, for the founding and early days of Perkins.
2. Charles F. F. Campbell and Mary D. Campbell, comps., Institutions forihe
Blind in America: A Directory of the Work for the Blind in the United States and
Canada, reprinted from The American Encyclopedia of Ophthalmology 9 ( 1916):95.
3. See Frances A. Koestler, The Unseen Minority: A Social History of Blindness
in America (New York: David McKay, 1976), chapter 8, "The Language of the
Fingers."
4. Susan A. Draper, "Literature for the Blind," Pm^//c Z-iiranw 9:147-149
(April 1904).
5. H. M. Utley, "Books for the B\'\t\d," Papers and Proceedings of the American
Library Association { 1898):93-95.
6. "What Some Libraries Are Doing for the Blind," Public Libraries 9:150-162
(April 1904).
7. EmmaR. Neisser, "Books for the BUnd." Papers and Proceedings of the
American Library Association (1906):78-82.
8. "Report of the Committee on Library Work with the Blind," Papers and
Proceedings of the American Library Association, ALA Bulletin 1:39-46 (July
1907).
9. Ibid., p. 44.
10. Ibid., pp. 45-46.
11. "Committee on Library Work with the Blind," Papers and Proceedings of the
American Library Association. ALA Bulletin 8:113 ([July] 1914).
12. Mary C. Chamberlain, Library Work with the Blind (Chicago: American
Library Association Publishing Board, 1915), p. 1.
13. Ibid, pp. 3-8.
14. Lewis W. Rodenberg, "The Story of Books for the Blind," in What of the
Blind? A Survey of the Development and Scope of Present-Day Work with the Blind,
ed. Helga Lende, [vol. 1] (New York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1938), pp.
167-168; "Report of the Committee on Work with the Blind," Papers and Proceed-
ings of the American Library Association. ALA Bulletin 14:281-282 (July 1920).
15. "Libraries for the Blind," in Proceedings of the World Conference on Work
for the Blind, ed. Helga Lende, Evelyn C. MacKay, and Sherman C. Swift (New
York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1931), p. 210.
16. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 248. Koestler notes that m 1924 the Veterans
Bureau "reported that it had given some form of rehabilitation service to 800 men
with visual defects, of whom 480 came within its own rather narrow specifications for
blindness." Of the latter, 185 had been blinded in action and 162 by diseases con-
tracted while in the service. In September 1941 , the Veterans Administration "had on
its register 726 World War 1 veterans receiving disability compensation for service-
connected blindness."
17. Frank Schoble, "Notes from Library Work forihe Blind," Papers and Pro-
ceedings of the American Library Association, ALA Bulletin 14: 144 (July 1920).
18. "Work with the Blind," Papers and Proceedings of the American Library
Association, ALA Bulletin 18:246-249 (August 1924).
21
That All May Read
19. R. B. Irwin, "Survey of Library Work for the Blind in the United States and
Canada," Papers and Proceedings of the American Library Association, ALA Bulle-
tin 2i:25 1 {August \929).
20. Robert B. Irwin, As I Saw It (New York: American Foundation for the Blind,
1955), pp. 72-73.
21. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 119.
22. Francis R. St. John, Survey of Library Service for the Blind, 1956 (New York:
American Foundation for the Blind, 1957), pp. 10-11.
23. Howard Haycraft, "The New Status of Library Work with the Blind," Wilson
Bulletin for Librarians 6:410 (February 1932).
24. Ibid.
25. St. John, Sun'ey of Library' Service for the Blind, 1956, p. 11.
26. Carol I. Alderson, "The Library and the Blind," Library Journal 65:193-
195(1 March 1940).
27. Maude G. Nichols, "History of ALA Committee on Work with the Blind,"
typescript (1952), p. 55.
28. Alison B. Alessios, "Library Work with the Blind," Wilson Library Bulletin
23:372-375 (January 1949).
29. Donald Patterson, "National Conference on Library Service for the Blind,"
The Library of Congress Information Bulletin 10:6-7 (26 November 195 1).
30. St. iohn. Survey of Library Service for the Blind, 1956, pp. 1-3.
31. Ibid., p. 108.
32. American Library Association, Round Table on Library Service to the Blind,
"Standards for Regional Libraries for the Blind," mimeographed (Washington,
D.C.: Division for the Blind, Library of Congress, 1961).
33. Eric Josephson, "A Study of Blind Readers," ALA Bidletin 58:546 (June
1964).
34. Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 339-344.
35. FrancesA. Koestler, ed.. The COMSTAC Report: Standards for Strengthened
Services (New York: Commission on Standards and Accreditation of Services for the
Blind, 1966), p. 201. The portion of this work dealing with library services was
reprinted in the work cited in note 36.
36. Cited in American Library Association, Library Administration Division,
Standards for Library Services for the Blind and Visually Handicapped (Chicago:
American Library Association. 1967), pp. 8-9.
37. Ernestine Rose, The Public Library in American Life (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1954), pp. 43-45.
38. "Report of the Committee on Libraries in Hospitals and Charitable and Cor-
rectional Institutions," Papers and Proceedings of the American Library Associa-
tion, ALA Bulletin 1 1:3 12 (July 1917).
39. "Hospital Librarians Round Table," Papers and Proceedings of the American
Library Association. ALA Bulletin 13:399 (July 1919).
40. Genevieve M. Casey, "Library Service to the Handicapped and Insti-
tutionalized," Library' Trends 20:352 (October 1971).
22
History and Standards
41. See Clara E. Lucioli and Dorothy H. Fleak, "The Shut-in: Waiting for
WhatV ALA Bulletin 58:781-784 (October 1964).
42. U.S., Congress, House, Study of Programs for Homebound Handicapped
Individuals, 84th Cong., 1st sess., 1955, H. Doc. 98, p. 49.
43. "Aduh Services Division," ALA Bulletin 53:597 (July-August 1959); "Spe-
cial Exhibit on the Handicapped Reader," ALA Bulletin 53:562 (June 1959);
"Reading Aids for the Handicapped," ALA Bulletin 53:799 (October 1959).
44. Earl C. Graham, "Public Library Services to the Handicapped," ALA Bulletin
61:170-179 (February 1967).
45. U.S. , Congress, House, Committee on House Administration, Subcommittee
on Library and Memorials, Books, Recordings and Other Materials for Use of the
Blind and Other Handicapped Persons: Hearing on H.R. 13783 and Related Bills,
89th Cong., 2d sess., 29 March 1966, p. 13.
46. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, s.v. "Blind and Physically
Handicapped, Library Service."
47. RaynardC. Swank, Library Service for the Visually and Physically Handi-
capped (Sacramento: California State Library, 1967); John Q. Benford, "Library
Services for the Blind and Physically Handicapped," Pennsylvania Library Associa-
tion Bulletin 25: 160- 167 (May 1970).
48. Eleanor Frances Brown, Library Service to the Disadvantaged (Metuchen,
N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1971), pp. 166-191.
49. Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, Library
Programs Worth Knowing About (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education,
1976); Ann Erteschik, Library Programs Worth Knowing About (Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Office of Education and Chief Officers of State Library Agencies, 1977).
50. Casey, "Library Service to the Handicapped and Institutionalized," pp. 350-
356.
5 1 . New York Public Library . Office of Adult Services , Large Print Book Proj-
ect: A Report (New York: New York Public Library, 1969).
52. See John A. McCrossan, "Extending Public Library Services to the
Homebound," American Libraries 1:485490 (May 1970).
53. Eleanor Phinney, ed. , The Librarian and the Patient: An Introduction to
Library Services for Patients in Health Care Institutions (Chicago: American Library
Association, 1977).
54. Hilda K. Limper, Michael Hirt, and Elaine Tillman, "Library Service to
Exceptional Children," Topofthe News 26:193-205 (January 1970).
55. See Frank Kurt Cylke, "Free National Program to Beef Up Services for Blind
and Handicapped," American Libraries 7:466-467 (July-August 1976).
56. U.S., Depanment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Civil Rights,
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Fact Sheet, July 1977, p. 2.
57. Michael P. Coyle, "ALA and Library Service to the Blind and Physically
Handicapped," HRLSD Journal 3:5-6 (Spring 1977).
58. Health and Rehabilitative Library Services Division, Library Service to the
Bhnd and Physically Handicapped Section, "Resolution on ALA Standards for Li-
23
That All May Read
brary Service for the Blind and Visually Handicapped," typescript (July 1975).
59. Health and Rehabilitative Library Services Division, Library Service to the
Blind and Physically Handicapped Section, "Board of Directors Meeting, 1976 Mid-
winter Conference," typescript.
60. American Library Association, Association of Specialized and Cooperative
Library Agencies, Standards for Library Service to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped Subcommittee, Standards of Service for the Library of Congress Network of
Libraries for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (Chicago: American Library
Association, 1979).
61. Ibid., pp. 15-16.
62. See Carl W, Lappin, "At Your Service: The Instructional Materials Reference
Center for the Visually Handicapped," Teaching Exceptional Children 5:74-76
(Winter 1973), reprinted in The Special Child in the Library, ed. Barbara Holland
Baskin and Karen H. Harris (Chicago: American Library Association, 1976), pp.
174-175; and John C. Belland, "Mission and Services of the National Center on
Educational Media and Materials for the Handicapped," in The Special Child in the
Library, pp. 188-195.
63. U.S., National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, Toward a
National Program for Library and Information Services: Goals for Action (Wash-
ington. DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 40-42.
64. P.L. 93-568, Senate Joint Resolution 40, 31 December 1974, Statutes at
Z^rge 88:1856.
65. The White House Conference on Library and Information Services, 1979,
Information for the 1980' s; The Final Report (Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1979), pp. 753-765.
24
Federal Legislation and Agencies
Which Serve BHnd and Physically
Handicapped People
IrvinP. Schloss
During the past forty-five years, a considerable body of federal legis-
lation has been enacted in the human services area. The programs
established by congressional action range from income maintenance
for individuals, administered directly by the federal government, to
federal financial grants to state and local governments for a variety of
purposes, such as health care, treatment for handicapped children,
education, employment and training services, and vocational re-
habilitation of the disabled.
Some are designed for special groups relatively small in number;
others are virtually universal or cover large segments of the popula-
tion. Some have very specific federal requirements for compliance;
others allow broad authority to states and localities in carrying out a
program as long as basic general requirements are met. Whatever the
type of federally assisted program, for nearly half a cenUiry the pattern
in the United States has been to establish major federally assisted
programs to deal with special needs.
How effective are these programs in achieving their objectives?
This is a question raised by congressional committees when consider-
ing legislation to extend programs due to expire. In recent years, it has
been raised at more frequent intervals as congressional committees
increasingly exercise oversight of programs within their legislative
jurisdiction. Representatives of the administration and of advocate
organizations appear before these committees and attempt to answer
this question within the limitations of the statistical measuring systems
available to them.
Irvin P. Schloss is director of the Governmenial Relations Department of the American Foundation for the
BUnd.
25
That All May Read
Periodically, an administration becomes concerned with the prolif-
eration of federally assisted human services programs and seeks au-
thority from the Congress to combine several — the allied services
concept — or to give states and localities broader latitude in adminis-
tering the program by allocating federal funds for broad purposes —
special revenue sharing. Perhaps the broadest approach to federal
financial aid to state and local governments became law when the
Congress enacted the State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act of
1972 — general revenue sharing — through which the federal govern-
ment annually gave states and units of local government some $6
billion in the aggregate for a period of five years. This act was ex-
tended in 1976 for an additional three years and nine months at an
annual rate of some $6.7 billion.
Late in 1980, the Congress extended general revenue sharing to
units of local government for three years and to states for two years.
The allocations to local governments will be nearly $4.6 billion for
each of three years through fiscal year 1983 and to state governments
$3.3 billion for each of two years beginning October 1 , 198 1 . The
new law repeals the provision of the act authorizing states to use their
share of revenue-sharing allocations for matching fund purposes to
receive federal funds for various categorical programs. Instead, it
gives states the option of receiving their share of revenue-sharing
allocations or the federal share of categorical programs.
The Congress enacted the Congressional Budget and Impoundment
Control Act of 1974 as a means of achieving two major objectives.
First, the Congress established its own budgeting procedures with
revenue and spending ceilings and timetables for enactment of appro-
priations bills. Second, it established procedures requiring the presi-
dent to seek formal congressional action on appropriated amounts he
intended to defer spending or not to spend at all. Previously, the
president could avoid spending money for any program despite con-
gressional wishes expressed in an appropriation act. Both aspects of
this law have important implications.
With specific regard to blind and physically handicapped people,
the impact of federally created and assisted programs is great from
both a positive and negative viewpoint. On the one hand, many of the
federally created programs, particularly those involving income
26
Federal Legislation and Agencies
maintenance and health services for older persons, are especially
helpful to the largest segment of potential users of the talking-book
program. On the other hand, the special programs designed for
younger people with limited or no sight are not routinely available to
older persons with the same vision problems. Ironically, older blind
and severely visually impaired people — by far the largest segment of
that population — remain the most neglected in many federally assisted
programs.
Despite substantial improvements in the basic income maintenance
programs, the Older Am.ericans Act of 1965, the Rehabilitation Act of
1973, and some of the other social service programs, the trend toward
more fiscal constraint has dramatically altered federal financing of
special programs for handicapped persons. A major factor in reducing
financing of specific programs to assist handicapped persons is the
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. Under
its provisions, the Congress must determine its spending priorities in
conjunction with projected revenues for each fiscal year, and its pri-
orities may not encompass the special needs of the handicapped. A
downturn in the economy and allocation of substantially greater fed-
eral financial resources for unemployment compensation, a protracted
high inflation rate, sharply increased living costs, a proliferation of
federal financial assistance programs, general and special revenue-
sharing approaches which foster competition between various popula-
tion groups for the same dollar — all of these may affect funding.
Similarly, an administration's spending priorities may not cover the
needs advocate organizations see as essential for special population
groups of the handicapped. In a complex international and national
economy, many factors may dictate other priorities for national re-
sources.
Before discussing major existing programs and their impact, it is
desirable to review statistics on the blind and physically handicapped
population currently eligible for the program administered by the Na-
tional Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped of the
Library of Congress.
With the exception of the blind and severely visually impaired,
statistical data on potentially eligible disability groups are inadequate.
For example, the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the
27
That All May Read
U.S. Public Health Service estimates that 176,000 individuals have
cerebral palsy.' However, NCHS itself does not differentiate the
number of individuals with this disability who cannot handle printed
material and need recorded books.
Consequently, the statistical information which follows reflects the
more reliable estimates of the blind and severely visually impaired
population who are unable to read pnnted material.
The Severely Visually Impaired Population
Blindness and severe visual impairment are conditions whose handi-
capping effects vary with the individual, depending on the degree of
remaining useful sight; the person's ability to use residual sight effec-
tively and efficiently in the performance of various tasks; the presence
of other impairments, such as loss of hearing or loss of tactual sen-
sitivity; and age. It has been estimated that up to 90 percent of all
information is received by humans through sight. With loss of sight,
humans must rely principally on the sense of hearing and the sense of
touch. ^
The aging process frequently results in some loss of hearing in the
high-frequency range — the range useful for orientation and mobility
for blind persons. Younger individuals blinded in explosions, such as
servicemen blinded in combat or civilians subjected to bombing or
shelling, often lose high-frequency hearing from nerve damage as
well. Noise pollution in modern urban centers is accelerating hearing
impairment at an earlier age in persons who may later suffer serious
vision loss, as well as in younger blind persons who would otherwise
not incur the same degree of hearing loss until later in life.
The principal problems resulting from blindness are loss of mobil-
ity, inability to read print, unemployability, and inability to perform
other daily living activities.
The National Society for the Prevention of Blindness (NSPB) esti-
mated in 1978 that some 498,000 persons in the United States were
legally blind. The definition of blindness used in arriving at this esti-
mate is the same as that used in section 2 I6(i) ( 1 ) of the Social
Security Act, that is. central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the
better eye with correcting glasses, or a contraction in the field of
28
Federal Legislation and Agencies
vision to 20 degrees or less in the better eye if central visual acuity is
better than 20/200. The prevalence rate of legal blindness is 2.25 per
1 ,000 of population. The NSPB estimates that 75 percent of the le-
gally blind population are forty years of age or older. It also estimates
that some 45,000 Americans become legally blind each year and that
75 percent of this number are forty or older. ^
Based on its 1977 household interviews, NCHS estimates that some
1.391 million noninstiuitionalized individuals in the United States
have severe visual impairment. The definition of severe visual im-
pairment used in reaching this estimate was inability to read ordinary
newspaper print with the aid of correcting glasses. The prevalence rate
is 7 per 1 ,000. NCHS estimates that 142,000 of these individuals are
under age forty-five (prevalence rate, 1 per 1 ,000), that 259,000 are
between the ages of forty-five and sixty-five (prevalence rate 6 per
1 ,000), and that 990,000 are sixty-five and older (prevalence rate of
44 per 1,000).^
Based on a 1969 survey of 8 16,000 nursing home patients, NCHS
found that 36,086 were blind.'' We have no authoritative estimates of ■
the number of blind or severely visually impaired individuals in other
types of institutional settings, such as homes for the aged.
The leading causes of blindness in the United States — senile
cataracts, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and macular degenera-
tion— are conditions which principally affect people over forty. In
addition, blindness is sometimes caused by cardiovascular diseases,
such as arteriosclerosis, hypertension, and stroke, as well as other
conditions which frequently accompany the aging process. Since, in
the light of current scientific knowledge, the prevalence of blindness
in the United States is a function of population growth, we can expect
that the number of older blind persons will increase as the number of
older persons in the population increases.
Based on its 1971 household interviews, when the estimated popu-
lation of severely visually impaired individuals was 1 .306 million,
NCHS indicated that 503,000 were male, and 803,000 female. For the
age group under forty-five, approximately 69,000 were male, and
51,000 female. Of those between the ages of forty-five and sixty-four,
it was estimated that 1 19,000 were male, and 157,000 female. For the
group sixty-five and older, 314,000 were male, and 595,000 female.*^
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That All May Read
The final NCHS report of the characteristics of severely visually
impaired persons based on its 1977 survey showed that this population
continues to have low income. Given the age configuration of the
legally blind population and Social Security Administration statistics,
it is likely that 75 percent of this total population are beneficiaries of
income security programs — old age and survivor's insurance, disabil-
ity insurance, and supplemental security income for the aged, blind,
and disabled.
Despite these figures, no one knows the exact number of totally
blind individuals in the United States. Authorities associated with
rehabilitation centers for the blind and other agencies providing direct
services to blind persons estimate that between 12 and 18 percent of
the legally blind population have no useful vision. Therefore, it can be
assumed that a maximum of ninety thousand persons in the United
States are totally blind or have only light perception without light
projection, that is, without the ability to identify the direction from
which light is coming. The rest have various degrees of residual sight,
which may be useful to them in the performance of different tasks,
especially if the usefulness is enhanced by optical aids, training in
various techniques, and other aids and devices.
Income Security
Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
The basic income security program for most Americans is the Old
Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program (ad-
ministered by the Social Security Administration) under Tide II of the
Social Security Act. Originally enacted in 1935 at the height of the
Great Depression, this title of the act provides for a uniform, national
old-age pension program financed through equal contributions by both
employees and employers of a percentage of the employees' wages. It
has been subsequently expanded since 1935 to cover survivors of
wage-earners, the self-employed, and individuals so disabled by a
physical or mental impairment for at least twelve months that they are
unable "to engage in any substantial gainful activity."
The need for higher income taxes to finance World War II and
30
Federal Legislation and Agencies
postwar international and defense obligations resulted in a substantial
delay in implementing projected increases in the Social Security tax
rate and taxable wage base (the portion of wages to which the Social
Security tax applies). At the same time, wage levels, living standards,
and living costs substantially increased. As a result, despite periodic
increases in benefit levels by the Congress, persons retiring in the
1950s or 1960s who were wholly or largely dependent on Social
Security retirement, found that income increasingly inadequate to
meet basic needs. The high inflation rates of the 1970s exacerbated
their problem.
In 1972, the Congress moved to provide relief by enacting a 20
percent increase in Social Security benefit levels. Effective in 1975, it
provided for automatic adjustments in benefit levels effective in July
of each year in accordance with increases in living costs reflected in
the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and for increases in the taxable wage
base effective in January of each year.
The Social Security Amendments of 1977 altered the financing of
the program and the method of computing cash benefits. Congress's
intention being to assure the integrity of the Social Security system
into the twenty-first century. Substantial increases in the taxable wage
base to $25,900 in 1980 and $29,700 in 1981 have resulted in concern
among upper middle income Americans, whose contributions to the
system will be substantially higher. (In 1977, the taxable wage base
was $16,500.)
For a worker retiring at age sixty-five in 1982, the maximum Social
Security benefit was $729.00 monthly for payments beginning in July.
For the retired worker and spouse aged sixty-five, the maximum
monthly benefit was $1,093.00 beginning in July. The average
monthly benefits were respectively $406.00 and $695.00.
A worker may retire on actuarially reduced benefits at age sixty-
two, and the retired worker's spouse is entitled to actuarially reduced
cash benefits at age sixty-two. The exception to the minimum retire-
ment age of sixty-two for spouse's benefits is the situation where a
retired worker has a younger spouse and dependent children under
eighteen (or twenty-two if the dependent children are in school).
However, in this case the benefit is predicated on the presence of
dependent children rather than on marital status, so the exception is
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That All May Read
only apparent, not real. The family would retain only the retired
worker's benefit after dependent children reached eighteen (or
twenty-two if they are in school) and would not regain an additional
benefit until the spouse reached age sixty-five (or sixty-two with re-
duced benefits).
The Social Security Amendments of 1972 liberalized widows' cash
benefits to make them equivalent, if applied for at age sixty-five, to
the benefit amount the deceased worker would have been entitled to
receive. A widow may receive actuarially reduced benefits beginning
at age sixty. A disabled widow with children under eighteen (or
twenty-two if they are in school) in her care may receive cash benefits
at any age. Disabled widows, widowers, and surviving divorced
wives, who must be unable to engage in any gainful activity because
of their disability in order to qualify, may begin receiving actuarially
reduced cash benefits at age fifty. A worker who is fifty-five and blind
may qualify for disability insurance cash benefits if he is unable "by
reason of such blindness to engage in substantial gainful activity re-
quiring skills or abilities comparable to those of any gainful activity in
which he has previously engaged with some regularity and over a
substantial period of time.
Retired workers aged sixty-five and older may supplement their
income by earning up to $6,000 in 1982 before their Social Security is
reduced. After earnings in that amount are reached, benefits are re-
duced by one dollar for every two dollars of earnings. The earnings
ceiling, which is called the retirement test, is now automatically ad-
justed annually in accordance with increases in living costs and wage
rates. It should be noted that unearned income in any amount, such as
income from investments or other retirement plans, will not reduce
Social Security benefits. Also, a retired worker aged seventy-two may
have earnings in any amount without having benefits reduced.
The major disability insurance provisions of the Social Security Act
were designed to assure a degree of income protection for workers
who have serious long-term disabilities which prevent them from en-
gaging "in any substantial gainful activity." The provisions have
been periodically liberalized over the years, including the requirement
that a disability must be expected to last for at least twelve months.
Aftei: a five-month waiting period, a qualified disabled worker may
32
Federal Legislation and Agencies
receive cash benefits based on his wage record as if he had reached
age sixty-two and was retired. Disability insurance cash benefits cease
at age sixty-five and become regular Social Security retirement bene-
fits paid from a different trust fund.
A legally blind worker, regardless of age, who is fully insured for
Social Security purposes and who is unable "to engage in any sub-
stantial gainful activity" may qualify for disability insurance cash
benefits. An individual with a serious visual impairment who is not
legally blind but who is found to be unable "to engage in any substan-
tial gainful activity" because of that visual impairment must not only
be fully insured but must also have twenty out of the forty quarters
preceding the onset of the disability in employment covered by Social
Security.
"Substantial gainful activity" for disability insurance purposes for
other than blind persons is defined in regulations of the Secretary of
Health and Human Services as earnings in excess of $300 a month.
Proposed regulations not yet made final would equate the dollar
amount of the definition to that in the retirement test previously men-
tioned and automatically increase it when the dollar amount in the
retirement test is increased.
The Social Security Amendments of 1977 statutorily equated "sub-
stantial gainful activity" for blind persons to the retirement test. Thus,
in 1982 a blind disabihty insurance beneficiary could earn $500.00 a
month without losing cash benefits. However, earnings in excess of
that amount would result in termination of cash benefits after a
twelve-month trial work period.
The Social Security Disability Amendments of 1980 extended the
twelve-month trial work period to twenty-four months, with suspen-
sion rather than termination of cash benefits during the second twelve
months. These 1980 amendments also added a number of provisions
designed to create incentive for disability insurance beneficiaries to
seek gainful employment and leave the benefit rolls. These provisions
include extension of medicare coverage for an additional thirty-six
months after an individual is terminated from the disability cash bene-
fit rolls as a result of engaging in "substantial gainful activity,"
elimination of a second twenty-four month waiting period for reenti-
tlement to medicare, and deduction of impairment-related work ex-
33
That All May Read
penses from earnings in determining whether an individual is engaged
in "substantial gainful activity." These amendments added two pro-
visions affecting the size of benefits. One reduced the number of
dropout years permitted disabled workers under age forty-seven in
computing their cash benefit, thereby reducing the benefit. The other
placed a ceiling on family benefits of disabled workers, the effect of
which is to reduce or eliminate these benefits for dependent children.
Another income security program under Title II of the Social Se-
curity Act can be important to those individuals who become disabled
from loss of sight before age twenty-two and who cannot work long
enough to build up a wage record for benefits under the two major
programs. This program authorizes the payment of "disabled child's
benefits" for life when the parent on whose wages the child is de-
pendent dies, retires, or becomes disabled. Thus, these benefit pay-
ments could begin when the disabled dependent "child" is as old as
forty and could continue until the disabled "child" dies.
The Social Security system has developed some anomalies and
problems. The intent of this social insurance program is to protect
workers and their families against the loss of part of their earnings
resulting from retirement, death, or disability. It was deliberately
designed to replace a larger proportion of the earnings of low earners.
However, the congressionally enacted formula for automatic increases
had the unintentional result of benefit payments to some individuals
being higher than their earnings during their working years. The So-
cial Security Amendments of 1977 corrected this anomaly.
There is a short-term financing problem in the Social Security trust
funds which will become acute in the 1980s if not corrected. It is
likely that the Congress will take appropriate action.
Supplemental Security Income
The Social Security Amendments of 1972 established Supplemental
Security Income (SSI) for the Aged, Blind, and Disabled administered
by the Social Security Administration under Title XVI of the Social
Security Act. The SSI program became effective in January 1974 and
supplanted the federal-state welfare program under Title I (old age
assistance). Title X (aid to the blind). Title XIV (aid to the perma-
34
Federal Legislation and Agencies
nently and totally disabled), and Title XVI (aid to the aged, blind, and
disabled) of the Social Security Act for eligible individuals in the fifty
states and the District of Columbia.
This new, federalized program established a uniform, national in-
come security program for needy individuals which many view as
more positive, less demeaning, less impoverishing, and generally
more liberal than the fifty-one programs it supplanted. Under the old
programs, not only was there considerable variation in payments to
recipients from state to state, but there was also considerable variation
in benefit amounts paid to the three categories of recipients within
each state.
There are substantial numbers of blind and severely visually im-
paired persons in the aged and disabled categories. Virtually all of
these were transferred to the SSI rolls from state rolls.
Under the SSI program an eligible individual could receive up to
$284.30 a month and an eligible couple up to $426.40 a month as of
July 1982. For SSI purposes, "an eligible couple" is one where both
spouses are sixty-five or older, legally blind, disabled, or any combi-
nation of these three criteria. Except for blind people, the definition of
disability for SSI is the same as that for disability insurance, that is,
"inability to engage in any substantial gainful activity by reason of
any medically determinable physical or mental impairment which
can be expected to last for a continuous period of not less than 12
months." The definition of "substantial gainful activity" is also the
same as previously discussed. For persons on the SSI blind rolls, the
"substantial gainful activity" criterion does not apply.
To qualify for SSI payments, an individual who is severely visually
impaired but not legally blind and who meets income and resources
criteria would have to be sixty-five or older or found to be disabled.
There is a provision for a number of income disregards. For ex-
ample, $20 a month of income from any source may be disregarded,
thus making persons receiving low Social Security benefits eligible for
some SSI payments. In addition, the first $65 a month of earnings plus
half of monthly earnings over that amount may be disregarded for SSI
purposes, thus enabling those recipients who are capable of working
and finding employment to augment their total income. For those on
the blind rolls, work-related expenses, such as income taxes, trans-
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That All May Read
portation costs to and from work, and the like, may also be disre-
garded for SSI purposes. The Social Security Disability Amendments
of 1980 added a provision allowing impairment-related work expenses
to be disregarded in computing cash benefits for individuals on SSI
disabled rolls.
Amendments enacted in 1976 provide for the disregard of assistive
housing payments under the various housing laws, as well as the total
value of an SSI recipient's house. Also, there will no longer be a
reduction in SSI payments for beneficiaries residing in group homes
which house up to sixteen persons.
Pension Reform and Income Tax
Increasingly, private pension plans are becoming a major source of
retirement income for many workers in addition to Social Security. To
protect these workers from loss of private pension income at retire-
ment owing to business failures, company mergers, or the worker's
changing jobs, the Congress enacted the Employee Retirement In-
come Security Act of 1974 (commonly referred to as the Pension
Reform Act of 1974). Its provisions for the "vesting" in workers of
their right to pension income, as well as "portability" of their pension
rights, are particularly important features. Some of its provisions are
administered by the Department of the Treasury; others by the De-
partment of Labor.
The Internal Revenue Code has a number of features designed to
foster provision for retirement pensions as well as to benefit persons
who are blind or sixty-five and older.
One of these features permits persons who are employees of private
nonprofit organizations classified as tax exempt and described in sec-
tion 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code to defer payment of
federal income tax on that portion of gross income paid into a private
pension plan until retirement, when total income and special exemp-
tions may make the tax rate more advantageous. Another provision,
commonly called the Keogh Plan, permits self-employed persons to
defer payment of federal income tax on 15 percent of gross income, up
to a maximum of $15,000 annually, if those funds are invested in a
retirement plan. Similarly, any employee may defer payment of in-
come tax until actual retirement on up to 100 percent of his gross
36
Federal Legislation and Agencies
earned income, up to $2,000 annually, placed in an Individual Re-
tirement Account (IRA).
There is an additional $ 1 ,000 exemption on federal income tax for a
taxpayer who is blind or who is supporting a blind spouse. Also, there
is an additional exemption of $ 1 ,000 for a taxpayer who is sixty-five
or older or is supporting a dependent who is sixty-five or older. Thus,
a blind taxpayer aged sixty-five who is supporting a spouse also aged
sixty-five may claim a total of five exemptions of $ 1 ,000 each in
computing federal income tax.
Other features of the Internal Revenue Code are advantageous for
individuals who are sixty-five or older. These include the retirement
tax credit as well as benefits related to the sale of a house.
Health Care
Medicare
The major improvements in federally financed health care came in
1965, when the Congress added Title XVIII (medicare) and Title XIX
(medicaid) to the Social Security Act.
Under Title XVIII, persons who are sixty-five and older and en-
titled to receive Social Security cash benefits are eligible for hospitali-
zation, nursing home care, and home health services as well as
surgery, other medical services, various ancillary health services,
prosthetic aids and appliances, other special devices, and inpatient
prescription drugs. Services may be provided on an inpatient, outpa-
tient, physician's office, or home health basis under a variety of
conditions and restrictions. There are limits to the number of days of
hospitalization, nursing home care, and home health services. There
are also deductibles and coinsurance amounts, which the patient must
pay for various services. Mental health services are severely re-
stricted.
For supplementary medical insurance benefits (the part of medicare
which functions like major medical private health insurance), the pa-
tient pays a monthly premium, which is deducted from Social Security
benefit checks. Patients may be reimbursed for up to 80 percent of
authorized expenses after a deductible for supplementary medical in-
surance benefits.
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Disability insurance beneficiaries may now qualify for medicare
after they are on the disability insurance rolls for two years.
From the point of view of blind individuals, there are a number of
shortcomings in the medicare program. Although eye surgery and
clear-cut medical treatment for serious eye conditions are covered,
only cataract lenses and ptosis rods (for weak eyelid muscles) are
covered. Low-vision services, including prescribed low-vision lenses;
routine eye care; and eyeglasses to correct special or ordinary vision
problems are not covered. Orientation and mobility services, re-
habilitation teaching services, and other services designed to restore a
patient to maximum functional independence after loss of sight are not
covered. Similar basic rehabilitation services, such as physical
therapy or speech therapy, are covered for persons with other dis-
abling conditions. For example, a stroke victim who loses full use of
limbs and has slurred speech is covered for the services of a physical
therapist and speech therapist. However, if blinded by the stroke, he
or she is not entitled to therapeutic services which would permit func-
tioning more independently without sight.
Medicare does not cover prescription drugs outside of a hospital or
nursing home and it requires three days of hospitalization before a
patient can be covered for nursing home care. In addition, increasing
health care costs result in increasing costs of supplementary medical
insurance benefit premiums, deductibles, and coinsurance payments
for the patient, making it highly desirable for those eligible for medi-
care to be able to afford, and to be accepted for, private health insur-
ance to cover these costs.
Although medicare is administered by the Health Care Financing
Administration, it contracts with intermediaries, such as Blue
Cross-Blue Shield affiliates or profit-making insurance companies,
for the day-to-day handling of claims by providers of health care
services. There often seems to be variation in interpretation of covered
services by intermediaries in different parts of the country.
Medicaid
Title XIX (medicaid) of the Social Security Act authorizes a
federal-state matching fund program to provide health care services to
38
Federal Legislation and Agencies
recipients of SSI, aid to families with dependent children, and other
welfare programs, as well as to those not receiving cash assistance
payments but found to have low enough incomes to be called medi-
cally indigent. A Social Security beneficiary may be entitled to both
medicare and medicaid and may select nonduplicative benefits more
advantageous under either.
Under medicaid, the federal government gives each state which
meets certain state plan requirements between 50 percent and 83 per-
cent of the cost of providing health care services to its eligible resi-
dents. At the federal level, the program is administered by the Health
Care Financing Administration in the Department of Health and
Human Services (HHS). At the state level, the program is adminis-
tered by state or local welfare or social services agencies. The pro-
gram varies from state to state; and, in addition to the range of health
care services available under medicare, it may include services in
intermediate care facilities, low-vision services, and provision of out-
patient prescription drugs.
Generally, SSI recipients are entitled to medicaid. A law enacted by.
the Ninety-fourth Congress immediately before adjournment assures
individuals who lose entitlement to any SSI payments by virtue of
cost-of-living increases in regular Social Security of continued enti-
tlement to medicaid. This is particularly important to residents of
states where medicaid benefits, such as general coverage of prescrip-
tion drugs, are more advantageous than benefits available under medi-
care.
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act .of 1981 contains an
amendment to Title XIX which holds promise of providing significant
services to blind and other handicapped persons. The amendment
provides authority to the states to develop medicaid-reimbursed home
and community-based services for medicaid-eligible persons who, but
for the provision of such services, would require care in a skilled
nursing facility or intermediate care facility. The new provision au-
thorizes the secretary of Health and Human Services to waive federal
requirements to enable a state to cover personal care services and other
services pursuant to an individual plan of care to persons who would
39
That All May Read
otherwise require institutionalization. States must determine that indi-
viduals otherwise would need institutional care and that it is reason-
able to provide individuals with alternative services, available at their
choice, pursuant to a plan of care.
Veterans Health Programs
The Veterans Administration (VA) operates a large network of hos-
pitals, outpatient clinics, and domiciliaries. It also reimburses state
nursing homes and homes for the aged for part of the cost of treating
or housing veterans. Drugs prescribed by VA or private physicians for
eligible veterans are available free from VA pharmacies on a mail-
order basis.
Veterans seeking treatment for a service-connected condition have
the highest priority. Veterans with a service-connected condition
seeking treatment for a nonservice-connected condition have the next
highest priority. Veterans without service-connected conditions seek-
ing treatment for nonservice-connected conditions are eligible for in-
patient services on a "space available" basis and for other services on
a generous financial-need basis. In recent years, dependents of vet-
erans with permanent and total service-connected disabilities were
made eligible for coverage of health care services by private providers
and can use VA facilities only when those facilities have a unique
capability.
Following World War II, when the army closed its rehabilitation
center for blinded servicemen and women, the VA established the
Central Blind Rehabilitation Center at the VA Hospital, Hines, Il-
linois, for blinded servicemen and women and veterans of all branches
of the Armed Forces. Subsequently, the VA established similar cen-
ters at its hospitals in Palo Alto, California, and West Haven, Con-
necticut. A fourth is projected at the VA Hospital, Birmingham, Ala-
bama.
Like the army, the VA considers restoration of a blinded veteran to
maximum functional independence a health service after it has been
established that medical, surgical, and optometric services to restore
maximum useful sight have been completed. Rehabilitation centers
for nonveteran blind persons, which were also established after World
War II as residential or nonresidential facilities generally based on the
40
Federal Legislation and Agencies
army and VA example, are operated by local voluntary agencies
serving blind persons, by state agencies for the blind, or by state
vocational rehabilitation agencies.
In addition to veterans with service-connected blindness, the VA's
blind rehabilitation centers serve veterans with nonservice-connected
blindness on a space-available basis.
Low-vision service is also increasingly available in VA facilities. In
addition, because of the increasing age of the World War I, World
War II. and Korean Conflict veteran population, the VA's Department
of Medicine and Surgery is focusing more attention on geriatric prob-
lems generally.
Maternal and Child Health
The Maternal and Child Health and Crippled Children's Programs
under Title V of the Social Security Act are designed to reduce infant
death and to correct or ameliorate handicapping conditions in chil-
dren. Administered by the Health Services Administration of the
United States Public Health Service, both programs authorize formula .
grants to states — the first to state health agencies and the second to
state crippled children agencies — on a fifty-fifty matching basis.
Thus, states received one dollar of federal money for every dollar of
state money appropriated for these two programs.
In addition, project grants to these same state agencies are au-
thorized by the law for specific purposes in contrast to ongoing ser-
vices under the formula grant programs. Research and training of
personnel are also authorized by the law.
Although the focus of both of these programs is to improve mater-
nal and child health and crippled children services in rural and low-
income areas, the needs criteria are more liberal, since these programs
can cover expensive procedures such as open-heart surgery. The Ma-
ternal and Child Health Program is intended to cover mothers during
the perinatal period and preschool children, while the Crippled Chil-
dren's Program covers children under age twenty-one. Vision screen-
ing is covered in many states under these programs, but specialized
services to legally blind or severely visually impaired children are not
covered everywhere. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of
1981 established a maternal and child health block grant, combining
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That All May Read
the maternal and child health and the crippled children's program
formula grants to states, the SSI disabled children's program, and
various smaller health programs, funded in Fiscal Year 1982 at $348
million, $106 million less than in Fiscal Year 1981.
National Health Insurance
Several Congresses in recent years have held extensive hearings on
proposed national health insurance legislation but failed to approve
any. In 1974 and 1975, the American Foundation for the Blind and
others recommended inclusion in a national health insurance program
of provisions for special services to blind and severely visually handi-
capped persons. Typically, these special provisions would: (1) cover
low-vision services to enable blind and severely visually impaired
individuals to make maximum use of residual vision; (2) cover ser-
vices in a rehabilitation facility for the blind; (3) cover services of a
mobility specialist for the blind and a rehabilitation teacher of the
blind to blind persons in hospitals, extended care facilities, homes for
the aged, and their own homes on an inpatient, outpatient, and home
health service basis to assist them in achieving maximum functional
independence without sight; and (4) authorize periodic comprehensive
audiological examinations for all blind and severely visually impaired
individuals.
Food and Nutrition
The various federally financed food and nutrition programs can be a
valuable supplement to the income of blind and other handicapped
persons. The Nutrition for the Elderly program under the Older
Americans Act of 1965 provides for low-cost nutritious meals served
to persons sixty years of age or older and their spouses, preferably in
congregate settings. However, meals may be delivered to the home of
the recipient. Individuals may pay nominal sums at their own option
for these meals. This program is administered at the federal level by
the Administration on Aging in HHS as a formula grant program to the
states, with a 90 percent federal share in the Fiscal Year 1980 and 85
percent federal share in the Fiscal Year 198 1 .
42
Federal Legislation and Agencies
The Food Stamp Act of 1964 authorizes a program administered by
the food and nutrition service of the Department of Agriculture at the
federal level and through state and local welfare agencies. On the
basis of income, eligible households may purchase varying amounts
of food stamps, which can then be used as legal tender for the pur-
chase of food in participating local stores. Elderly or handicapped
persons may use food stamps to purchase meals delivered to their
homes by nonprofit organizations if they are unable to prepare meals
themselves. Elderly persons may also use food stamps to pay for
meals served in congregate facilities.
In 1979, Public Law 96-58 liberalized the Food Stamp Program for
handicapped persons. First, it authorized a deduction for medical ex-
penses in excess of $35 a month for households containing individuals
sixty years of age and older or SSI or disability insurance beneficiaries
in addition to the standard deduction and dependent care deductions.
Second, it allows an excess shelter expenses deduction for households
containing individuals in these same categories if their shelter costs
exceed 50 percent of household income after other permissible deduc-
tions. Third, it makes eligible for food stamps blind or disabled indi-
viduals who are receiving SSI or disability insurance benefits and who
live in public or private nonprofit group living arrangements which
serve no more than sixteen residents.
It is likely that both of these programs are underutilized by eligible
blind or disabled individuals for a variety of reasons, including pride,
ignorance of their existence, inability to get to places where meals are
served or food stamps are distributed, and bureaucratic red tape in the
distribution of food stamps.
Housing
The various federal housing laws have programs, including rent
supplementation and other assistive housing payments, designed to
assist low-income families or those with elderly or disabled family
members. They are administered at the federal level by the Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development. For the rent supplement
program, low-income individuals and households may receive rent
43
That All May Read
subsidies in excess of 30 percent of their monthly income up to a
maximum of 70 percent of the rent payment.
In some areas, local housing authorities with federal financial as-
sistance are purchasing luxury and other apartment houses for occu-
pancy by low-income older persons. In addition, there is a specific
program of low-interest loans to foster construction of housing for the
elderly and handicapped.
Rehabilitation Services
The Vocational Rehabilitation Acts and their successor, the Rehabili-
tation Act of 1973, have as their principal purpose restoration of
handicapped individuals to employment. Preparation for, and place-
ment in, jobs with pay commensurate with the handicapped indi-
vidual's aptitude and ability have far-reaching implications for his or
her old age, since earnings during the working years govern income in
retirement. Among the major improvements made by the Rehabilita-
tion Act of 1 973 was the clear mandate of a priority in services to the
severely handicapped.
This program uses federal-state matching funds, with a federal
share of 80 percent of the cost of case services. It is administered at
the federal level by the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA)
in the Department of Education and operated by state vocational re-
habilitation agencies or state agencies for the blind.
Since physical restoration to eliminate or ameliorate a handicapping
condition is an integral part of the program, it also covers health
services which cannot be obtained under other existing programs,
including private health insurance.
Low-vision services can be provided to maximize the efficient use
of residual sight. Similarly, state agencies can provide rehabilitation
center training, as well as orientation and mobility and other daily
living skill services outside of a center.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which was approved by the presi-
dent early in the autumn of that year, contained authorization for
special projects in the rehabilitation of older blind persons.
Under Titles II and XVI of the Social Security Act, disability insur-
ance beneficiaries and SSI blind and disabled beneficiaries under
44
Federal Legislation and Agencies
sixty-five considered suitable candidates for vocational rehabilitation
are referred to state rehabilitation agencies, with the full cost of ser-
vices covered by the federal government. Referral from both programs
is very selective, and congressional intent is clearly vocational re-
habilitation for employment to remove beneficiaries from the rolls in
both income security programs.
Historically, research and demonstration project funds under the
vocational rehabilitation program have been used to develop programs
which benefit blind and severely visually impaired persons of all ages.
Examples are establishment and operation of low-vision clinics, ser-
vices for deaf -blind adults, training of orientation and mobility
specialists, and rehabilitation center services specifically for older
blind persons.
Public Law 95-602, the Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services,
and Developmental Disabilities Amendments of 1978, made many
far-reaching improvements in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. In what
is now Title VII of that act, the 1978 amendments established a
formula grant program to assist the states in providing comprehensive
rehabilitation services to handicapped individuals to enable them to
achieve independent living in their homes and communities regardless
of their potential for vocational rehabilitation and employment. In
addition, the 1978 amendments authorized the commissioner of the
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) to make grants to states
and private nonprofit agencies in an amount not to exceed 10 percent
of the allotments to each state under the formula grant program for
independent living rehabilitation services for older blind persons (de-
fined as persons fifty-five years of age and older) — a group seriously
neglected in the regular vocational rehabilitation program. The third
major component of Title VII authorized discretionary grants for the
establishment and operation of centers for independent living, a new '
concept in the rehabilitation movement through which centers oper-
ated by severely handicapped persons attempt to assure other handi-
capped individuals of access to a wide variety of services. It should be
noted that the only Title VII program to receive financing through the
appropriations process for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1982,
was the centers for independent living program.
Title VI of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, also added by the 1978
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That All May Read
amendments, grouped the authorizations for two new employment
programs for handicapped individuals with an existing, successful
one — projects with industry. In the latter the RSA makes grants to and
contracts directly with corporations for on-the-job training of handi-
capped persons, a program which invariably results in jobs at the
conclusion of the training period. One of the two new programs estab-
lished a community service employment pilot program for handi-
capped individuals, employment in public service jobs which enable
those participating to work for pay in useful jobs until they have an
opportunity to obtain permanent employment with private agencies or
companies or with government agencies. The other new Title VI
program is designed to assist handicapped individuals to establish
their own businesses and to assist them in marketing their products.
Neither of these two new programs has received appropriations for the
1982 fiscal year and have not, therefore, been implemented. The
community service employment program is to be administered at the
national level by the Department of Labor, while the business enter-
prise program will involve the RSA in consultation with the Depart-
ment of Commerce and the Department of Labor.
A major new government entity established by the 1978 amend-
ments is the National Institute of Handicapped Research, statutorily
housed under the same assistant secretary as the RSA. Designed to be
the focal point in the federal government for technological, vo-
cational, and social research related to the special needs of the handi-
capped, the institute assumes the major function in research previ-
ously carried out by RSA, including the various university-affiliated
research and training centers for various types of disabilities. Bio-
medical research is, of course, still to be carried out through the
National Institutes of Health, one of the six major components of the
U.S. Public Health Service.
A major improvement added by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and
strengthened by the 1978 amendments is affirmative action programs
designed to foster better employment opportunities for handicapped
individuals. Section 501 of the act is designed to facilitate employ-
ment of qualified handicapped persons with the federal government.
Section 503 requires private employers who are contractors with the
46
Federal Legislation and Agencies
federal government to establish affirmative action plans for hiring and
advancing qualified handicapped persons in employment.
Special Employment Programs
As a means of creating employment opportunities for qualified blind
persons during the Great Depression, the Congress in 1936 enacted
the Randolph-Sheppard Act, under which blind persons were granted
preference in the operation of concession stands in federal buildings.
Named after its sponsors, the then-Representative Jennings Randolph
of West Virginia (currently the senior Senator from that state and
ranking minority member of the Subcommittee on the Handicapped of
the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources in the Ninety-
seventh Congress) and the late Senator Morris Sheppard of Texas, this
law created employment opportunities which were expanded over the
years and now enables some five thousand blind persons to earn their
own way in vending facilities on federal and other property.
Administered at the federal level by a special unit, now called the
Bureau for the Blind and Visually Handicapped, in the RSA, the act is
implemented at state level by state licensing agencies, which license
blind operators of the facilities installed by the agencies and supervise
their operation. Licensing agencies are agencies of state government
— separate state agencies for the blind or state vocational rehabilita-
tion agencies — which administer the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 at
state level. State agencies also expanded the program to include a
substantial number of concession locations in state and local govern-
ment buildings as well as in privately owned buildings. Depending on
their location, vending facilities range in size and variety of articles
sold from news, candy, and tobacco stands to snack bars and
cafeterias.
Over the years, the growth of vending machines placed in federal
buildings with the net proceeds paid to federal employee recreation
and welfare groups as well as to federal employee unions, resulted in
the curtailment of concessions for blind persons in some locations and
a decrease in the income of others. Despite opposition from federal
employee groups, the Randolph-Sheppard Act was amended in 1974
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That All May Read
to reinforce the statutory priority of blind persons in vending opera-
tions on federal property, devise an equitable distribution of vending
machine income, and establish administrative appeals procedures to
adjudicate grievances among blind vendors, state agencies, and fed-
eral agencies.
Another law designed to create employment opportunities for blind
persons also originated in the depression of the 1930s. It is the
Wagner-O'Day Act, which was passed by the Congress in 1938 to
provide a market for the commodities manufactured by blind persons
in public and private nonprofit workshops.
Under this act, the federal government was required to give priority
to products made in these workshops in its procurement of articles
used by federal agencies. A presidentially appointed Committee for
the Purchase of Blind-Made Products, consisting of the representa-
tives of the principal federal agencies and a public member, adminis-
tered the law and determined the products to be purchased as well as
what the government would pay for them.
In 1972, as a result of the effort of Senator Jacob K. Javits of New
York, the act was expanded to cover commodities made by other
severely handicapped individuals in workshops, while preserving the
priority for the substantially smaller number of workshops for the
blind. In addition, the Javits amendments covered procurement of
services by the federal government and granted workshops for the
blind a priority in this aspect of the program through 1976. They also
altered the composition of the administering agency, changed its name
to the Committee for Purchase of Products and Services of the Blind
and Other Severely Handicapped, and for the first time authorized it to
have its own small staff. A subsequent amendment changed the name
of the administering agency to the Committee for Purchase from the
Blind and Other Severely Handicapped.
The original act authorized the establishment of a central nonprofit
private agency for the purpose of allocating government orders to the
various workshops. It was established in 1938 and is known as Na-
tional Industries for the Blind. The amended act authorized a similar
agency for allocating government orders to workshops for other se-
verely handicapped groups known as National Industries for the Se-
verely Handicapped.
48
Federal Legislation and Agencies
As of September 30, 198 1 , seventy-four agencies for the blind,
employing some thirty-one hundred blind persons, many with serious
additional disabilities, were participating in this procurement pro-
gram. At that same time, there were 134 workshops for the other
severely handicapped providing goods and services to the federal gov-
ernment. These employ some six thousand handicapped individuals in
this program. Goods made in the workshops for federal agency pro-
curement include writing pads, ball-point pens, neckties and rifle belts
for the armed services, and bedding. Among the services contracted
for are laundry, janitorial, and messenger service.
A major labor law enacted during the New Deal era has important
implications for the program under the Wagner-O'Day Act. It is the
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which established the minimum
wage, hours in the work week, and rates of pay for overtime work, as
well as minimum piece work rates. Until 1966, that act specifically
provided for exceptions from the prevailing minimum wage for
trainees and handicapped workers employed in workshops. That year,
in response to a coalition of advocate organizations of and for the
blind, the Congress amended that act to establish a floor of 50 percent
of the prevailing minimum wage for handicapped workers in work-
shops. Although some blind and other handicapped workers employed
in workshops earn substantially more than the prevailing national
minimum wage ($3.35 an hour in 1982), none can be legally paid less
than half of that amount; and pay rates increase proportionately as
periodic amendments to the act increase the prevailing national mini-
mum wage. Advocate organizations of blind persons continue to seek
increases in pay for blind workers in workshops to the prevailing
minimum wage.
Special Education
Historically, elementary and secondary state schools for the blind, for
the deaf, or for the mentally retarded were established as far back as
1832 and supported by state, local, and private funds. It was not until
1966, with theenactment of Public Law 89-313, that major federal
financial aid was provided to state-operated and state-supported
schools for handicapped children. This special provision in that law
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That All May Read
was found to be necessary when it was quickly discovered that the
landmark Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Public
Law 89-10), with its formula for apportioning federal financial aid to
local educational agencies on the basis of numbers of economically
deprived children, was administratively infeasible for handicapped
children in state schools.
However, the need for federal financial aid in the education of blind
children, a low-prevalence group, was recognized as far back as 1879,
when the Congress enacted Chapter 186, 45th Congress, which, with
subsequent amendments, authorized the appropriation of federal funds
to the American Printing House for the Blind for the provision of
books in raised characters, recorded form, and large print, as well as
tangible educational aids, to blind children in residential state schools.
In 1956, as the number of blind children in regular local elementary
and secondary schools increased substantially, the law was amended
to permit provision of educational materials to them as well. Since
books and educational aids were distributed on a quota basis according
to the number of blind children in a state school or local public school,
it became necessary for the Printing House and its colleague organiza-
tions to seek amendments increasing the ceiling on appropriations
with greater frequency to prevent the quota from shrinking as the
numberof blind children grew. In 1961, the ceiling on appropriations
was eliminated, thereby leaving the quota of books and aids to be
purchased and allocated through the Printing House in this unique
grant-in-kind program to the justification of the appropriations pro-
cess. In 1970, another far-reaching amendment added private schools
(including parochial schools) to this program.
Recognizing the need to provide adequate numbers of teachers
trained in the special education techniques necessary to teach handi-
capped children, the Congress in 1958 enacted Public Law 85-926 to
underwrite the cost of preparing teachers of mentally retarded chil-
dren. In 1963, the Congress took a major step, providing federal
financial assistance for the training of teachers and teacher preparation
personnel needed in the education of all types of handicapped children
by enacting Title III of Public Law 88- 164. In addition, this legisla-
tion created authority for grants to finance research and demonstration
projects to improve techniques for educating handicapped children.
50
Federal Legislation and Agencies
thereby creating the nucleus for what later became the Education of
the Handicapped Act.
In succeeding years, the federal financial role in the education of
handicapped children was extended and strengthened and in 1970
these various provisions were consolidated in Title VI of the Elemen-
tary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 by Public Law 91-230.
Title VI is called the Education of the Handicapped Act. In addition to
administrative provisions statutorily establishing the Bureau for the
Education and Training of the Handicapped (commonly called the
Bureau for the Education of the Handicapped) in the Office of Educa-
tion, the Education of the Handicapped Act contains authority for
federal financial aid as follows: grants to states, incentive grants,
regional resource centers, centers and services for deaf-blind children,
early education for handicapped children, regional education pro-
grams, personnel training, research and demonstration projects (in-
cluding physical education and recreation), instructional media for the
handicapped, and special programs for children with specific learning
disabilities.
As a result of state court decisions holding that handicapped chil-
dren must be given an appropriate free public education and not
merely held in custodial institutions, state and local governments,
advocate organizations, parent groups and others began to petition the
Congress for federal financial aid to deal effectively with the large
backlog of handicapped children who had been educationally ne-
glected over the years. Congress responded with enactment of land-
mark legislation. Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handi-
capped Children Act of 1975. This law substantially strengthened the
"grants to states" provisions of Part B of the Education of the Handi-
capped Act in an effort to assure a free, appropriate public education
and related services for all handicapped children. It should be noted
that most handicapped people seeking higher education attend regular
colleges and universities, usually as part of a vocational rehabilitation
program financed under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The only
exceptions are Gallaudet College for the deaf, created by federal stat-
ute, and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, also created by
federal law to provide postsecondary technical education for deaf
students.
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Department of Education
On October 17, 1979, the Department of Education Organization Act
became law (Public Law 96-88). The provisions of this law creating
the new cabinet-level department were implemented by April 17,
1980. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW)
became the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) at that
time.
Of particular interest is the creation in the new Department of
Education of an Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Ser-
vices and the transfer to it of various federal agencies previously
mentioned. The new office is headed by an assistant secretary and the
agencies transferred are: the Rehabilitation Services Administration,
the Bureau for the Education and Training of the Handicapped (re-
named the Office of Special Education), the National Institute of
Handicapped Research, the National Council on the Handicapped, the
Interagency Committee on Handicapped Research, the Helen Keller
National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths and Adults, and the Office of
Information and Resources for Handicapped Individuals. In addition,
HEW's functions with regard to Gallaudet College, the National
Technical Institute for the Deaf, and the American Printing House for
the Blind were transferred to the new department.
Social Services
In 1956, the Congress added authority for provision of social services
to promote self-care of cash public assistance recipients to the cash
assistance titles of the Social Security Act. State welfare or social
services agencies, which administered the cash assistance programs,
also administered the social services program, except in Delaware,
Massachusetts, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Virginia, where
separate state agencies for the blind then administered the Title X cash
maintenance and the social services programs for legally blind recip-
ients of all ages. The federal government paid 50 percent of the cost of
social services to promote self-care, with the federal share provided on
an open-end funding basis.
52
Federal Legislation and Agencies
The Public Welfare Amendments of 1962 strengthened these provi-
sions and authorized federal reimbursement to the states of 75 percent
of the cost of specified social services designed to promote self-care
and self-support and "prevent dependency." Financing was still
open-ended, with the federal government obligated to reimburse states
for approved services.
Except in the five states where separate state agencies for the blind
had specific legal authority to obtain reimbursement from the federal
government, there does not appear to have been much evidence that
these social services funds were being used to provide or purchase
specialized services for blind persons, particularly for older blind
persons. It is likely that older blind persons benefited to some degree
in some states from more general social services.
In 1972, as a result of concern in both the Congress and the admin-
istration over the rapidly increasing cost to the federal government of
social services on an open-end funding basis. Congress, by adding a
rider to the General Revenue Sharing Act (P.L. 92-5 12), put a ceiling
of S2.5 billion on the authorization of appropriations for social ser-
vices while still retaining a 75 percent federal share. Late in 1974, the
Congress enacted Title XX of the Social Security Act, establishing a
block grant mechanism under which requirements for states to obtain
federal funds for social services were minimal and states were given
maximum latitude as to the social services they provided. This pro-
gram is administered at the federal level by the Office of Human
Development Services in HHS.
There is a statutory requirement that states must spend 50 percent of
social services funds on recipients of SSI, aid to families with de-
pendent children, and medicaid. State agencies for the blind which
had previously administered social services programs for blind per-
sons could continue to do so under Title XX. However, as a result of
state reorganizations, only agencies in Massachusetts, North Carolina,
and Virginia now administer Title XX state plans for blind persons.
Amendments to Title XX in 1976 authorized states to have the
option of providing social services on a group eligibility rather than
individual means test basis in geographic areas of the state where
substantially all of the residents have incomes below 90 percent of the
state median income. This has implications for provision of social
53
That All May Read
services to older persons in senior centers as well as older blind and
severely visually impaired persons.
In preparing A Guide to Expanding Social Services to the Blind
under Title XX of the Social Security Act. John L. Duncan, of the
American Foundation for the Blind's Governmental Relations staff,
reviewed the first-year Comprehensive Annual Services Program
(CASP) plans of forty-nine states and the District of Columbia. He
found that only seventeen states indicated that they would provide
specialized services to blind persons, such as orientation and mobility
and rehabilitation teaching services. According to Duncan, these
first-year CASP plans estimated that sixty-two thousand blind and
severely visually impaired persons would receive these specialized
services at a cost of $10.7 million. There was no way of ascertaining
whether an individual would receive more than one service. As this is
likely, the total number served would actually be lower. It is also
likely that blind persons received other general social services, such as
homemaker services.''
According to the summary of CASP plans for Fiscal Year 1979,
prepared by Kilgore and Salmon of the Office of the Assistant Secre-
tary for Planning and Evaluation at HEW, discrete services for the
blind, developmentally disabled, and physically handicapped repre-
sent 3.7 percent of total Tide XX expenditures for that fiscal year.
They state that their analysis indicates that discrete services for these
groups represent $145.8 million — $9.4 million for the blind, $13.8
million for the physically handicapped, and $122.6 million for the
developmentally disabled.*
They further point out that thirty-four states said they targeted Title
XX services to the blind, but that only thirteen states included "Spe-
cial Services to the Blind" as a discrete service.®
Until adequate financing of independent living rehabilitation ser-
vices for older blind persons under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is
realized, Title XX of the Social Security Act continues to be the best
potential source of specialized services for this group, as well as other
severely handicapped individuals. However, the block grant mech-
anism fosters competition for services at state levels among a large
variety of target groups and their advocates, thus making some small
groups vulnerable to the effort of substantially larger and better or-
54
Federal Legislation and Agencies
ganized groups in the political process involved, given the limited
amount of funds.
Older Americans Act
The Older Americans Act of 1 965 was enacted to assure provision of a
wide variety of necessary services to the growing proportion of older
persons in the population who need them. This is to be accomplished
through the establishment with federal financial assistance under the
act of state and area agencies on aging, which can serve as advocates
to assure utilization by older persons of other federally financed pro-
grams, as well as through programs established by the act itself.
The Nutrition for the Elderly program has already been discussed.
There is also authority for model projects, including specific provi-
sions for special services to older handicapped Americans. Amend-
ments enacted in 1975 require state agencies on aging to spend not less
than 20 percent of their allotments for community services on trans-
portation services, home services, legal and other counseling services,
and residential repair and renovation programs.
Administered at the federal level by the statutorily established Ad-
ministration on Aging, the Older Americans Act of 1965 must still be
regarded as having its greatest impact on the lives of older blind and
other handicapped persons at some time in the future. Except for the
Nutrition for the Elderly program, the bulk of federal funding has
necessarily been devoted to the establishment and operation of state
and area agencies on aging, research programs, training of personnel,
and increasingly for social services. Special services to blind and other
handicapped older persons can be handled on a model project basis as
well as through community services. These model projects include a
variety of special services, such as reader services.
In enacting the 1978 amendments to the Older Americans Act, the
Congress substantially expanded demonstration project authority. Of
particular interest is section 42 1 of the act, which authorizes the
Commissioner on Aging to make grants and contracts for projects in
ten states "to develop or improve methods of coordinating all avail-
able social services"" for the homebound elderly blind and disabled. In
addition, section 422 of the act authorizes demonstration projects in
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That All May Read
long-term care, both institutional and noninstitutional, which are to
include a wide range of rehabilitative and social services.
Reading Services
One of the major handicapping effects of severe visual impairment,
including legal blindness, is inability to read printed material with
ordinary correcting lenses. Readily available low-vision services fi-
nanced under a comprehensive national health insurance program — or
medicare for those sixty-five years of age and older and disability
insurance beneficiaries — would help to solve the reading problem for
many severely visually impaired persons. Others will still have to
depend on systems which convert the written word into tactile or
audible reading methods.
In 193 1 , Congress enacted the Pratt-Smoot Act, which authorized
the Library of Congress to purchase books in braille to be lent to blind
adults through regional distributing libraries. In 1933, Congress ex-
panded the program to include sound recordings of books and equip-
ment on which the records could be played. Subsequent amendments
extended the program to blind children, removed the ceiling on the
authorization of appropriations, and, in 1966, extended the program to
other physically handicapped individuals of all ages who cannot
handle ordinary printed material.
Administered by the National Library Service (NLS) for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress, the program
covers books in braille and recorded form, instructional music texts
and braille music, and playback equipment for pressed records, em-
bossed records, and cassette tapes. Eligible readers may borrow books
and playback equipment through regional distributing libraries — many
of them state or municipal libraries or state agencies for the blind —
which can receive a small amount of federal financial aid for this ser-
vice under the Library Services and Construction Act, administered by
the Department of Education. In some areas, playback equipment is
distributed by local agencies for the blind. Books are generally bor-
rowed and returned to libraries by mail at no cost to readers as a result
of federal legislation which subsidizes this cost to the U.S. Postal
Service.
56
Federal Legislation and Agencies
The books for the blind and physically handicapped program is the
most significant current source of recreational and informational
reading material for older blind and severely visually impaired per-
sons. As most of them lose their sight in middle age or later, com-
paratively few will learn to read braille proficiently enough to enjoy
extensive reading tactually. Most blind persons now use recorded
books. The Fiscal Year 1982 appropriation to the Library of Congress
for this program is $33.4 million.
Radio Reading Services is a recent development helpful to persons
who cannot read ordinary printed material. The services are operated
by a variety of agencies, including those established specifically for
that purpose, and use a subcarrier channel of a cooperating local
commercial or educational FM radio station to carry their programs. A
pretuned FM radio receiver is required by those who use the service.
The Educational Broadcasting FaciHties and Telecommunications
Demonstration Act of 1976 authorized grants to public broadcasting
facilities to cover 75 percent of the cost of these radio receivers.
Programming varies with each Radio Reading Services organiza-
tion, but it generally does include live reading of local newspaper
articles and grocery and other retail store advertisements. The Corpo-
ration for Public Broadcasting, which receives a direct federal ap-
propriation, is actively interested in Radio Reading Services and al-
ready has the authority to make grants for some programming if it
decides to do so.
Grants and contracts from the Rehabilitation Services Administra-
tion (RSA), the Office of Special Education, the Veterans Adminis-
tration, and the National Science Foundation have assisted in the
research and development of a variety of devices to read print using
tactile and audible signals. The most promising of these appear to be
the Optacon, which converts print into magnified tactually discernible
form, letter by letter, and the Kurzweil Reading Machine, which
converts print into synthetic speech. The latter is still in prototype
form, and individual machines will be expensive unless advances in
computer technology make cost reduction feasible.
A new section 314 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, added by the
1978 amendments, authorizes the commissioner of RSA to make
grants to states "or to private nonprofit agencies or organizations of
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That All May Read
national scope (as so deteirnined by the Commissioner)" to provide
reading services to blind persons who are not otherwise eligible for
such services through other state or federal programs, that is, to blind
persons not enrolled in a vocational rehabilitation agency program.
This new RSA program is designed to expand the quality and scope of
reading services and "to assure to the maximum extent possible that
the reading services provided under this Act will meet the reading
need of blind persons attending institutions providing elementary,
secondary, or postsecondary education, and will be adequate to assist
blind persons to obtain and continue in employment. ' '
Grants to states for reading services are to be administered by the
state vocational rehabilitation agencies or state agencies for the blind.
Reading services are defined to include the employment of persons
who will read aloud; transcriptions of printed information into braille
or sound recordings on an individual request basis; storage and dis-
tribution of braille and recorded materials; purchase, storage, and
distribution of equipment and materials needed for production, dupli-
cation, and reproduction of braille materials and sound recordings;
purchase, storage, and distribution of equipment to blind persons to
provide them with individual access to printed materials by mechani-
cal or electronic means; and radio reading services for blind persons.
No funds were appropriated for section 3 14 in Fiscal Year 1982.
Prohibition of Discrimination
No discussion of federal legislation on blind and other handicapped
persons would be complete without mention of some of the devel-
opments in legislation prohibiting discrimination.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits dis-
crimination in employment on account of age for individuals between
the ages of forty and seventy. District offices of the Equal Employ-
ment Opportunity Commission process complaints.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimina-
tion against otherwise qualified handicapped individuals in federally
assisted programs. The federal agency which administers the funding
of the program concerned processes complaints. Amendments in 1978
58
Federal Legislation and Agencies
cover programs and activities of any executive branch agency and the
U.S. Postal Service. A new section 505 of the act, also added by the
1978 amendments, provides that the remedies, procedures, and rights
under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 shall be available
with regard to complaints of discrimination under section 504.'°
Courts are authorized to award attorney's fees to the prevailing side
(other than the U.S. government) in any actions to enforce Title V of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.
For the purpose of eliminating duplication, inconsistencies, and
competition among federal agencies with regard to enforcement and
implementation of the provisions of Title V of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973, section 507 established the Interagency Coordinating Coun-
cil, consisting of the secretary of HEW, the secretary of labor, the
attorney general, the chairman of the U.S. Civil Rights Commission,
the chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and
the chairman of the Architectural and Transportation Barriers Com-
pliance Board.
The Age Discrimination Act of 1975 prohibits discrimination on
account of age in federally assisted programs, including general
revenue-sharing programs. It specifically exempts from its coverage
the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and programs
targeted on specific age groups, such as Headstart. A study by the
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights of patterns of discrimination on
account of age in federal financial assistance programs revealed that
individuals over age forty-five were discriminated against in the pro-
vision of a variety of services, including vocational rehabilitation and
social services. Complaints are processed by the regional office of the
federal agency administering the assistance program, except for HHS
programs. The Office of Field Services, Office for Civil Rights, at
HHS in Washington, D.C. , processes complaints regarding HHS pro-
grams.
The State and Local Fiscal Assistance Amendments of 1976 pro-
hibit discrimination on account of race, color, national origin, sex,
age, and handicapping conditions in programs financed with general
revenue-sharing funds. At the federal level, general revenue sharing is
administered by the Department of the Treasury.
59
That AH May Read
All of these laws can have considerable impact on blind and other
handicapped persons if vigorously enforced.
Architectural Barriers
In recent years, there has been increasing concern about architectural
barriers limiting access of handicapped individuals to programs as a
result of inaccessibility of buildings. The Architectural Barriers Act of
1968 provides for construction of public buildings designed to make
them accessible to handicapped persons, as well as for modification of
existing public buildings, including libraries. Although most ortho-
pedically handicapped persons may not be eligible for the Library of
Congress's National Library Service for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped program, others will be, and removal of architectural
barriers in regional distributing libraries would make library visits
more feasible.
Public Law 95-602 broadened the membership of the Architectural
and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board established by section
502 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. It provides for the appointment
of eleven public members by the president, five of whom shall be
handicapped individuals. In addition, the heads of the following fed-
eral agencies or their designees are to be members: the Department of
HHS , the Department of Transportation , the Department of Housing
and Urban Development, the Department of Labor, the Department of
the Interior, the Department of Defense, the Department of Justice,
the Veterans Administration, and the U.S. Postal Service.
The board is given the authority to prescribe and enforce standards
under the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968. In addition, the scope of
its authority is increased to include communication barriers.
The law authorizes the board to provide technical assistance to
"any person or entity" to facilitate compliance with section 502 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973. In addition, the board is authorized to
make grants to state vocational rehabilitation agencies and other or-
ganizations for studies to assess the cost of making programs acces-
sible. The law also authorizes the board to sue and be sued in its own
name.
60
Federal Legislation and Agencies
Conclusion
Major federal laws have created programs of benefits and services of
considerable significance to blind and handicapped persons." How-
ever, from the point of view of handicapped people, shortcomings in
some major programs — income security, health care, food and nutri-
tion, housing — while they affect all eligible persons for a variety of
reasons, may be more acutely felt by blind and handicapped persons
because of the serious problems added by their handicapping condi-
tions. And shortcomings in other major programs — vocational re-
habilitation, the Older Americans Act, social services under Title XX
of the Social Security Act — stem from the need to focus on handi-
capped persons of optimum employable age, on underfinancing, or on
the vast scope of diverse services coupled with too many eligible
people for the funds available. In addition, the new block grant
method for administration of Title XX and other programs creates
competition at the state level for available funds and services between
beneficiary groups.
Major gaps in services to older blind and severely visually impaired
persons continue to be lack of general availability of quality low-
vision services with the cost covered by private health insurance or a
government-financed program, as well as the lack of adequate
financing of specialized services designed to foster independent living
and prevent premature institutionalization. The last mentioned gap
applies to all types of severely handicapped individuals for whom
vocational rehabilitation is not currently considered to be feasible. No
federally created health care program covers low-vision services for
all who might benefit. The only federally authorized programs under
which specialized services for independent living can currently be
provided — Title XX of the Social Security Act and Title VII of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 — either are required to do too much (Title
XX) or are woefully underfinanced (Title VII).
Undoubtedly, the most effective way of assuring older blind and
severely visually impaired persons of low-vision and specialized inde-
pendent living services, such as rehabilitation center training, orienta-
tion and mobility services, and training in other daily living skills, is
61
That All May Read
to cover them as health and allied health services under medicare and,
subsequently, under a comprehensive national health insurance pro-
gram. Similarly, long-term care services, such as homemaker and
mobile meal services, could be covered under medicare and a national
health insurance program for those who need them as a means of
delaying costlier institutionalization.
The advantage of coverage of these services as part of a comprehen-
sive national health insurance program are uniformity of entitlement
and payment mechanisms and assurance of quality professional stan-
dards through accreditation of providers of services. Unlike existing
federal-state matching fund programs, a comprehensive national
health insurance program would not be subject to the vagaries of
federal and state appropriations processes with their dependence on
matching fund allocation formulas and inevitable limitation of the
numbers of people served.
Until a truly comprehensive national health insurance program is
implemented. Title VII of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, covering
independent living rehabilitation services to handicapped persons of
all ages without regard to potential employability, will have to meet
the need. This federal-state matching fund program could be phased
down as medicare and national health insurance increasingly cover the
cost of these services.
However, the history of human services programs in the United
States has demonstrated that federal financial assistance is essential to
assure their continued support and development. The adequacy of
these programs is inextricably dependent upon a healthy economy to
produce the revenues needed to underwrite their cost. Therefore, the
rate of development of needed human services programs can never be
permitted to exceed the ability of the national economy to support
them without prejudicing the existence of the programs themselves.
NOTES
1. U.S., Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health
Statistics, Prevalence of Selected Impairments: United Slates. 1977, by Barbara A.
Feller, Vital and Health Statistics Series 10. no. 134 (Washington: Government
Printing Office. 1981), p. 15,
2. See, for example, Thomas J. Carroll, Blindness: What It Is. What It Does, and
How to Live with It (Boston: Little. Brown. 1961).
62
Federal Legislation and Agencies
3. National Scx;iety for the Prevention of Blindness, Data Estimates on Vision
Problems in the U.S. (New York; National Society for the Prevention of Blindness,
1980) part 2, Data Analysis, p. 5.
4. National Center for Health Statistics, Prevalence of Selected Impairments:
UnitedStates. 1977, p. 8.
5 . National Center for Health Statistics, Chronic Conditions and Impairments of
Nursing Home Residents: UnitedStates, 1969, by Alvin Sirrocco, Vital and Health
Statistics Series 12, no. 22 (Washington; Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 13.
6. National Center for Health Statistics, Prevalence of Selected Impairments:
UnitedStates, 1971, by Charles S. Wilder, Vital and Health Statistics Series 10, no.
99 (Washington; Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 25.
7. John L. Duncan, A Guide to Expanding Social Services to the Blind under Title
XX of the Social Security Act (New York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1976),
pp. 19-54.
8. Gloria Kilgore and Gabriel Salmon, Summaries and Characteristics of States'
Title XX Social Services Plans for Fiscal Year 1979 (Washington, D.C.; Government
Printing Office, 1979), pp. 176, 181, 174.
9. Ibid, p. 175.
10. The Civil Rights Commission Act Amendments of 1978 expanded the Civil
Rights Commission 's jurisdiction to include protection against discrimination based
on handicap. The definition of handicap to be used in such cases is the same as that
contained in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.
1 1 . Earlier summaries of laws are provided in Helga Lende, Federal Legislation
Concerning Blind Persons in the United States and Insular Possessions (New York:
American Foundation for the Blind, 1958); M.L. Lavor, "Federal Legislation for
Exceptional Persons; A History," Public Policy and the Education of E.xcepiional
Children ed. Frederick J. Weintraub et al. (Reston, Va.; Council for Exceptional
Children, 1976); U.S., Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and
Budget, Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance (Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1979). In addition, other relevant laws are discussed elsewhere in this volume,
for example, the Library Services and Construction Act.
63
A History of the National Library
Service for Blind and Handicapped
Individuals, the Library of Congress
Today people who cannot hold, handle, or read conventional print
materials because of physical handicaps are eligible for free library
service through a national network of diverse kinds of libraries
cooperating with the National Library Service for the Blind and Physi-
cally Handicapped (NLS) at the Library of Congress.
This library service began modestly on March 3, 1931, when Presi-
dent Herbert Hoover signed into law an act, commonly known as the
Pratt-Smoot Act, to provide embossed books for adult blind residents
of the United States and to allow circulation of those books through
selected libraries serving as regional centers.' On the following day, a
joint resolution of the Senate and the House of Representatives pro-
vided $100,000 for the fiscal year of 1932 to enable the Librarian of
Congress to carry out the congressional mandate.^
Background
An environment conducive to passage of the Pratt-Smoot Act resulted
from the efforts of many organizations and individuals interested in
increasing the supply of reading materials for blind adults.
The Library of Congress
In 1897, the year the Library of Congress moved from the Capitol
to a new building across the street, the new Librarian of Congress,
John Russell Young, opened a reading room for the blind, deeming it
"wise to make some provision for" blind persons "in a library of a
This chapter was researched and written by staff itienibers of the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped (NLS). the Library of Congress. Other than quotations, data gathered from NLS
annual reports and other internal documents and from mterviews are not footnoted
65
That All May Read
national character." Seventy blind people in the area were invited to
use the collection of some two hundred volumes (about forty titles)
and the writing slates, typewriters, and other devices that were soon
provided. The program met with success, and "many ladies and gen-
tlemen volunteered their services to . . . give readings" of books not
available in tactile form.^ Musicales, lectures, and other entertain-
ments were soon added and were attended by many sighted people as
well. The assistant in charge, Etta Josselyn Giffin, encouraged patrons
who had graduated from schools for the blind to transcribe embossed
books from dictation, often paying them six cents a page from donated
funds; about 300 books were added to the collection by 1912 in this
way."*
In 1910, Librarian of Congress Herbert Pumam transferred Giffin
and the reading room's collection to the District of Columbia Public
Library on the grounds that its services were more appropriately pro-
vided by a municipal library. Unlike other Library of Congress func-
tions, the reading room did not involve research or scholarship. Fur-
thermore, its services were not primarily national in character. Its
entertainments, for which the city library had a much larger hall, and
its book services benefited only local residents. Although reference
service was extended nationally, it naturally followed the collection.
The public library could not serve blind readers outside the city
limits in nearby Maryland and Virginia and had no money to buy more
books. Dissatisfied patrons petitioned four senators to intercede with
Dr. Putnam, who agreed to reinstate the reading room in the Library
of Congress provided its services became national in scope, at an
estimated cost of $7,500 annually. In anticipation of these funds, the
reading room was reopened in The Library in January 1912; however,
Congress subsequently appropriated only enough for a single position,
$1,200. Uncertainty in some quarters about the future of library ser-
vices for blind readers at the Library of Congress had led to the
incorporation of the National Library for the Blind, in Washington,
D.C., a private nonprofit organization, and Giffin became its direc-
tor. ^
In October 19 12, Gertrude Rider became the assistant in charge of
the reading room in the Library of Congress. She found a collection of
66
History of the Library of Congress Program
about 2,000 volumes, "uncatalogued and unclassified," used by
fewer than 150 readers, almost exclusively local residents. When she
retired in 1925, the reading room, by then "officially designated as
'Service for the Blind,' " had "developed from a small local book-
circulation service into a widely known and much sought bureau of
information, a directing agency for welfare undertakings in behalf of
the Nation's blind, and a notable circulating collection worthy of the
Federal Government and of the National Library."® It was serving
more than 2 ,400 readers across the nation and referring readers to
local libraries whenever possible, lending more than 42,000 volumes
annually, and issuing catalogs and lists of new titles in the collection,
which had grown to more than 13,000 volumes. Three-fourths of this
increase occurred in the last half of Rider's thirteen years of service,
through purchases, gifts, and, in part, as a result of a 1913 act which
required the American Printing House for the Blind (APH) to deposit
with the Library of Congress a copy of every book for blind children
the printing house produced with federal funds.
Braille Presses
Like most braille presses in this country in the early 1920s, APH
had developed in association with a school for blind children, to
provide educational materials; it was originally the print shop for the
Kentucky School for the Blind. While most such presses continued to
meet only local needs, in 1858 APH was chartered by the Kentucky
legislature as a nonprofit printing house to supply educational mate-
rials nationwide. In 1879, Congress made it the official printer of
textbooks for blind children, providing an annual subsidy. Commer-
cial production of braille has never been feasible. The demand —
further reduced in the early days by the multiplicity of touch-reading
codes in use — has always been too small for profitable mass produc-
tion. In addition, braille books are very bulky compared to print and
therefore expensive both to ship and to store. A Bible brailled on one
side of the paper in the early 1920s ran to more than forty volumes.
The cost and sheer bulk of braille materials precluded personal collec-
tions, hence the great need not only for textbooks but also for lending
67
That All May Read
libraries for adults once the education of blind children was well under
way.
By the early 1920s, three other braille presses were large enough to
provide materials nationally — the Howe Memorial Press in Boston,
affiliated with the Perkins School for the Blind; the Clovernook
Printing House for the Blind in Cincinnati, affiliated with the Clover-
nook Home and School for the Blind; and the Universal Braille Press,
established with the help of philanthropic individuals in 1920, and
owned by Robert Atkinson, who was blinded as an adult. All three
were nonprofit organizations supported by private philanthropy or
government subsidy.
The presses thus were largely under the control of educators, and
their primary business was providing educational materials for chil-
dren. The selection of adult titles to be produced depended on the
donors' preferences or the educational value of the works, rather than
on the tastes of the readers or a rational plan for developing a well-
balanced braille literature comparable to a public library collection.
The bulk of braille materials consisted of children's books, textbooks
for children, and religious or inspirational works.
Volunteers
World War I provided the stimulus for both greater responsiveness
to adult readers' needs and organized volunteer handtranscriptions.
The concurrence of two events in 1918 was significant. Rider volun-
teered to serve as librarian at what came to be called the Evergreen
School for the Blind near Baltimore, established in November 1917 to
provide prevocational and some vocational rehabilitation to U.S. ser-
vicemen blinded in the war. And earlier that year, the United States
had concluded the domestic battle of the dots by adopting a new
embossed code as its uniform type, rejecting the various embossed dot
systems in use at the time. In order to take full advantage of the
limited literature available, the blind reader had had to learn some
half-dozen codes. Few did, among them Helen Keller.^ Charles W.
Holmes described a comparable state of affairs sighted people would
not have tolerated:
Imagine for a moment the ridiculous situation tiiat would arise, if the daily papers
68
History of the Library of Congress Program
published in Boston had an entirely different system of characters from those used by
New York publishers, and that a Philadelphia man could not read either without
special training, because his own city had adopted a third, as unlike the others as the
Chinese characters are unlike the Roman."
The much-needed uniform code, Revised Braille, grade Wi, lay
"halfway" between British grade 1 , which spelled out each word
letter by letter, and British grade 2, which used many contractions,
such as the letter b for but and a special sign for ness.
The adoption of the uniform type and the founding of
Evergreen — the only school for blind adults except for a few work-
shops and industrial homes — meant that blinded servicemen were
"practically the only adult readers wholly dependent upon" the new
type.® It also meant that grade 1 Vi braille materials were in short
supply during the transition to the new type. Rider organized a small
collection of braille books at Evergreen, the nucleus of which was lent
by the Library of Congress. And she began a volunteer braille tran-
scribing service to provide the recreational reading materials needed to
maintain the servicemen's morale. Handtranscribed single copies of
books, long a major component of library collections in Europe, were
not widely available in American libraries. But "hundreds of men and
women volunteered to copy into Braille any reading for the soldier
blind. . . . It promised something needed . . . and not otherwise
provided for."'"
High standards assured accuracy. Qualifying transcribers were
given certificates and blind experts proofed every page. During one
twelve-month period, the volunteers turned out 195 titles for adult
readers to the braille presses' 20." In 1921 , Rider's volunteer tran-
scription project became an official program of the National Head-
quarters of the American Red Cross, which recruited volunteers
throughout the country to work under Rider's direction. That year the
American Red Cross published a braille transcribing manual "de-
signed to teach sighted volunteers by correspondence to write accurate
Braille";'^ it had been prepared jointly by the Library of Congress and
the Red Cross." By August 1925, about 900 volunteer braille tran-
scribers had been certified.'^ In 1923, a proofreader's manual was
published for correspondence courses for blind people, providing
them a means of gainful employment. In 1931, The Library could
69
That All May Read
state that "so far as is known, this is the only book of its kind in
existence."'^
But hundreds of hours of work by volunteers, who usually paid for
their own braillewriters and braille paper, resulted in only a single
copy of each title. In 1925, the first handcopied book was duplicated
by Red Cross volunteers, using the Garin process, a not entirely
satisfactory method of stiffening the handcopied pages sufficiently to
allow them to be used as plates for printing a limited number of
copies, which were distributed to libraries around the country. By the
mid- 1920s, volunteers were brailling for their local libraries as well as
for the Library of Congress. Thus the stimulus provided by blinded
veterans was turned to the benefit of the civilian blind population as
well.
The Veterans Bureau, which had assumed responsibility for
Evergreen from the Red Cross in 1922, closed the school in 1925.
Offering to provide continuing and personal service to blinded vet-
erans wherever they lived. Rider was instrumental in moving to the
Library of Congress both the Evergreen braille collection of some
1 ,500 volumes and the volunteer transcription service. The Braille
Transcribing Service became a joint project of The Library and the
Red Cross. The latter provided staff and materials, and the former a
director and office space. By the 1930 fiscal year — a record year for
volunteer transcription at the time, with almost 220,000 pages hand-
copied and almost 185,000 pages proofed — 184 chapters of the Red
Cross in forty-two states, the District of Columbia, and the Philippines
were participating in the program and two people at the transcribing
service at The Library were working nearly full time giving corre-
spondence courses.
The American Library Association
At the same time she was organizing the volunteer project, Rider
asked the American Library Association (ALA) to raise money for
press-brailling books needed in multiple copies in grade Wz for the
war blind. ALA had long been interested in books for blind readers.
(As far back as 1907, a member of ALA's new Committee on Library
Work with the Blind had suggested that a centra! library of books for
70
History of the Library of Congress Program
blind individuals was needed, with materials available nationwide.)'®
ALA responded to Rider's request with enthusiasm. Its Library War
Service Committee initiated press-brailling of vocational texts and
other books, often with funds supplied by the books' authors or pub-
lishers or by philanthropic organizations, such as Lions Clubs, or
individuals. For example, Mrs. Jack London agreed to meet the cost
of braining one of her late husband's stories.'' Through ALA, Mary
Roberts Rinehart gave $500 for embossing her latest book, Love
Stories: and Booth Tarkington gave $300 to make the plates for Pen-
rod. '^ By July 1922, ALA had raised funds for brailling eighty-three
titles.'"
In 1923, the Veterans Bureau was authorized by Congress to spend
up to $100,000 for braille books for veterans, with three copies of
each title going to the Library of Congress collection. For that sum,
only sixty-seven titles in editions of fifteen copies could be produced.
By far the greatest part of the cost of brailling lay in making
(stereotyping) the metal plates. In many cases, with donors paying for
the expensive plates, copies could be sold at relatively nominal cost to
libraries. In 1924, ALA and the Veterans Bureau shared the cost of
press-brailling Burton J. Hendrick's Life and Letters of Walter H.
Page. The plates for the ten-volume braille edition cost $1 ,200; the
cost per copy exclusive of this initial expense was about $42.*"
In addition to promoting the production of braille books, ALA
published lists of books in the new uniform type, grade Wi, that were
available for purchase. Booklist of Revised Braille. In its December
1923 issue. Outlook for the Blind began publishing these lists and a
review column on braille books, "Book News," also contributed by
ALA. And in 1923, ALA published its third finding list of books in
12-point type or larger with good leading. Books for Tired Eyes."^^
In 1926, the majority of the ALA Committee on Work with the
Blind believed that, with a few additional large collections, the coun-
try could be districted, "each district to be served by its regional
library as far as the resources of that library" permitted, "with the
understanding that any library" for blind readers would "meet a
legitimate demand from any locality."-^ In fact, "a self-imposed,
uncoordinated" districting system without "precise boundaries of re-
sponsibility" was already in use.^^ The municipal public libraries of
71
That All May Read
Chicago and New York City; the Wayne County Library in Detroit;
the Perkins School for the Blind, in Watertown, Massachusetts; and
the California State Library in Sacramento already were serving pa-
trons in large areas, and, since at least 1916, the Library of Congress's
Service for the Blind had been referring readers to local libraries with
the books requested. But these libraries' collections were diverse, and
restricting service to specific areas impractical.
After volunteers began handtranscribing books for their local
libraries in the mid- 1920s, ALA undertook to conduct a clearinghouse
of handcopied titles. Lucille A. Goldthwaite, of the New York Public
Library's department for blind readers, compiled lists of handcopied
books in various local libraries. These lists were published regularly in
the Outlook from the March 1927 issue to the end of 193 1 , when that
function was taken over by the Braille Book Review, of which more
later.^'' ALA also published a revised "brief introduction to the library
problems peculiar" to service for blind readers. Library Work with
the Blind, in 1930.-^ And, in 1927, it asked the American Foundation
for the Blind (AFB) to conduct a survey of libraries for blind persons.
The American Foundation for the Blind
AFB was founded in 1921 by the American Association of Workers
for the Blind and the American Association of Instructors of the Blind,
whose president the previous year was the director of Evergreen.
These groups wanted to establish a national nonprofit body repre-
sentative of and responsive to every aspect of work for blind people,
cooperating with agencies working for blind people and doing such
things as they were not doing or could not do. Among AFB's objec-
tives was legislation at all levels of government for the welfare of
blind and partially sighted persons. Its organization included bureaus
of information and publicity, research, and education. The education
bureau was expected to cooperate with embossing plants and with
libraries to improve the quality and increase the quantity of embossed
literature, while the bureau of research was to develop and standardize
devices and procedures, particularly those relating to embossing and
printing, and to increase the number of blind readers. AFB was to be
an organization that unified the work for blind people.
72
History of the Library of Congress Program
In 1923, AFB took over from Charles Campbell publication of the
quarterly Outlook for the Blind, which included announcements of all
embossed books available for purchase. In 1924, AFB began con-
ducting a clearinghouse for press-braille titles to be embossed, the
Embosser's List, in order to avoid duplication of effort among pro-
ducers. Like ALA, it raised funds to increase the "distressingly lim-
ited number of braille books. "'^ In one three-year period it raised
enough money for seventy titles, requiring 131 volumes, in editions of
eleven copies each, one for each leading library for blind readers in
the country. Among the donors was Mrs. Andrew Carnegie, who paid
$1,140 for the production of the six-volume braille edition of her
husband's biography. "^^ By the late 1920s, building on earlier work by
the Howe Press, the Matilda Ziegler Magazine printing plant, the
Universal Braille Press, and others in this country as well as Europe,
AFB established the feasibility of interpointing braille. This process is
the precision embossing of braille on both sides of the page so that the
dots on one side fall between the dots on the other. Interpointing
reduces the bulk of braille books by about one-third and the cost by
almost as much. This advance was in large part the result of work in
the AFB experimental mechanical shop, financed by a grant from the
Carnegie Corporation brought about through the influence of ALA.^^
Libraries for Blind Readers
In 1928, AFB undertook the survey of libraries for blind readers in
the United States and Canada requested by ALA. At the time, there
were about 100.000 blind people in the country, 90 percent of whom
had lost their sight as adults, and 20 percent of whom could read
braille literature.^'' The AFB study found that fewer than 10,000 blind
people in this country were library patrons, that libraries had difficulty
obtaining books because there were so few sources, none commercial,
and that some readers were borrowing books from several libraries.^"
Only fifteen libraries for blind readers were large enough to have a
full-time attendant, most of them in the northeastern part of the coun-
try, with none in the South. Such libraries assumed an unfair financial
burden in serving the reading needs of the nation's blind population.^'
Robert Irwin, director of research and education at AFB from 1923 to
73
That All May Read
1929 and executive director from 1929 until his retirement in 1949,
described what had happened in the years after the first library for
blind readers, outside of schools, was established in Boston in 1868:
Three or four score of libraries in the United States purchased collections of embossed
books. . . . The blind population of the territory usually served was small, and after a
short period of enthusiasm the books were for the most part read and the demand fell
off. As the blind people ceased to call at the library for books these bulky volumes
were gradually relegated to the back rooms and because of the apparent lack of
interest fresh accessions were not added. In time it became evident that few com-
munities have a sufficient number of blind readers to maintain a very active circula-
tion of embossed books. ^^
What made library service for blind readers feasible was free mail-
ing privileges for embossed books on loan, granted by Congress in
1904 33 If jg gfju g crucial part of such service. Blind people who had
read their local libraries' books and readers in small towns and rural
communities, as well as those in larger cities with no libraries for
blind people, began applying for braille books by mail. For example,
the Columbus, Ohio, library mailed out only 12 to 30 embossed books
annually before 1904; in the first year of free mailing privileges for
library books, circulation rose to 112, and four years later to 653.^ A
"few progressive libraries" put their collections in the hands of atten-
dants who encouraged mail order circulation and
gradually built a large clientele spread in many instances over several states. . . .
Libraries having no regular attendant to promote this activity were unable to handle
satisfactorily the mail requests, and in time practically discontinued all library work
for the blind. . . . [By 1929] more than ninety percent of the books lent by libraries
for the blind . . . [were] called for by mail or telephone, and practically all . . . [were]
sent out through the postoffice.^^
Thus, because of the dearth of embossed materials in any one library,
diverse collections, and the low density of the blind population, the
largest libraries were both understocked and overextended — related
phenomena. For example, the New York Public Library's collection
of about 1 ,000 embossed books in 1930, quite a large collection for
that time, was minuscule compared with its 1 million books for
sighted patrons. ^^ Blind readers outside the library's geographical tax
base naturally wished to avail themselves of these books and books in
other libraries outside their communities. Fifty-five percent of the
Chicago Public Library's blind patrons lived outside the city, 60 per-
74
History of the Library of Congress Program
cent of the Cleveland Public Library's, and 90 percent of the Cincin-
nati library's. The New York State Library for the Blind served
readers in thirty-two states. ^^ The major problem was not so much
providing services through these large libraries as the dearth and cost
of books.
A National Program
By 1930, then, circumstances were favorable for circulating to
blind adult readers braille books underwritten by federal funds. Prece-
dents for federal support existed in the APH subsidies for educational
materials for blind children and in the Veterans Bureau purchase of
braille materials for blinded veterans, as well as in the special mailing
privileges for sightless individuals. The Service for the Blind of the
Library of Congress was considered a national source, lending books
to more than 3,000 readers in forty-eight states plus the District of
Columbia, and, when possible, referring patrons to libraries nearer
them, in a loosely districted arrangement. Interpointing had reduced
the cost of braining considerably, enough existing braille presses were
eager to print more books, and the thriving volunteer program, di-
rected from the Library of Congress, was supplementing press-braille
grade I'/a books in collections around the country. The AFB survey
provided valuable statistical support for passage of federal legislation.
The demand for library service and popular titles was growing due to
the increase in literacy. And public awareness of the reading needs of
blind people increased after World War I. when attitudes were
changing from pity and condescension to constructive helpfulness.
Early in 1930, three bills proposing the use of federal funds to
provide books for blind adults were introduced in the House of Repre-
sentatives by Representatives Ruth Pratt of New York, Joe Crail of
California, and Lister Hill of Alabama. The federal program was born
amid surprising controversy.^® Essentially, the bills differed in three
ways: the size of the appropriation, the administering agency, and the
method of distribution. The Pratt bill called for a $75,000 appropria-
tion to be administered by the Library of Congress; the Crail and Hill
bills for $100,000 to be administered respectively by the Braille In-
stitute of America, a recently incorporated nonprofit arm of the Uni-
75
That All May Read
versal Braille Press, and by ALA, although the latter had already
endorsed the Pratt bill. The Pratt bill provided for the Librarian of
Congress to select regional libraries which would circulate the books
to readers; the other two bills called for books to be distributed among
the country's libraries, the Crail bill on a pro rata basis considering the
number of blind patrons of each library.
After hearings before the House Committee on the Library for the
Pratt bill and before the House Committee on Education for the others,
the Hill and Crail bills died in committee. Amended to raise the
appropriation to $100,000, the Pratt bill was reported out of commit-
tee favorably but was not voted upon before Congress adjourned,
although its companion Senate bill, introduced by Senator Reed
Smoot of Utah, was passed without debate on May 12, 1930. Repre-
sentative Pratt and Senator Smoot reintroduced their bills in December
1930; shortly thereafter, the Crail bill was also reintroduced. The
Senate again passed the Smoot bill without debate, in January 1931,
and the Pratt bill was passed by the House on February 28 , 193 1 , after
considerable debate.
Passage of the Pratt-Smoot bill was "a recognition by Congress"
that blind people "shared with the sighted a desire and capacity for
intellectual development and pursuits; that they possessed . . . ambi-
tions and aspirations, talents and capabilities worthy of encourage-
ment and enhancement, not only for" their own benefit "but for the
betterment and benefit of the entire Nation. "^^
Project, Books for the Adult Blind
In response to the congressional mandate, the Library of Congress
created the Project, Books for the Adult Blind, which began opera-
tions with the start of the new fiscal year, on July 1 , 193 1 . At its
inception and for many years thereafter considered a "philanthropic
activity of the United States Government," the project was "ad-
ministered with the view of confining all expenditure, as far as practi-
cally possible, to . . . the actual providing of books for the blind." By
accepting "numerous services from many sources," The Library
could arrange for the rest of the work to be absorbed by its existing
personnel, aside from clerical help.'"'
76
History of the Library of Congress Program
That first year, 157 books selected to be embossed in braille or in
Moon type (which used angular roman letters more easily read by
older people than was braille) were "approved by the Librarian of
Congress. . . from suggestions received from the librarians serving
the blind and from the blind readers themselves."^' The first book
ordered was Woodrow Wilson's George Washington, in honor of the
bicentennial anniversary of Washington's birth. Other works selected
were Jeans's Universe around Us, Clendening's Human Body,
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Turner's
Frontier in American History, Sandburg's Abraham Lincoln: The
Prairie Years, and such works of fiction as Buck's Good Earth,
Hugo's Les Miserables, and Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, as well as
Rinehart's latest mystery. Miss Pinkerton. The project's primary ob-
jective was "to furnish blind readers with the best literature in all
fields of knowledge, not already available to them."*^ As many dis-
tributing librarians promptly reported, this basis of selection did not
entirely satisfy blind readers, many of whom preferred light fiction.
The books were circulated to readers by libraries across the country,
chosen on the basis of suggestions made by ALA and AFB:
New York State Library (Albany)
Georgia Library Commission (Atlanta)
Texas State Library (Austin)
Chicago Public Library
Cincinnati Public Library
Cleveland Public Library
Denver Public Library
Wayne County Library (Detroit)
Library of Hawaii (Honolulu)
New York Public Library
Free Library of Philadelphia
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh
California State Library (Sacramento)
Michigan State Library for the Blind (Saginaw)
Saint Louis Public Library
Seattle Public Library
National Library for the Blind, Inc. (Washington, D.C.)
Perkins Institution Library (Watertown, Massachusetts)
Service for the Blind, the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.)
77
That All May Read
In the first year of operation, the public libraries of New Orleans and
Omaha were added to the original nineteen.
The project was administered — first by the director of the Legisla-
tive Reference Division and then, from November 1935 to June 1940,
by the Chief Assistant Librarian — quite independently of both the
distributing library at the Library of Congress (Service for the Blind),
which was part of the Reading Room Division, and the Braille Tran-
scribing Service. However, cooperation was usually close.
The most obvious and immediate impact of the Pratt-Smoot Act on
the Library of Congress distributing library was an increase in the
number of new books acquired because of the additional works
supplied by the Project, Books for the Adult Blind. Thus, between
Fiscal 1932 and Fiscal 1934, an average of about 60 percent of the
library's new books were supplied by the project, and the number of
acquisitions was 60 percent greater than the average of the three
previous years. The demand for this "bewildering supply of new
books" increased gready while requests for older books fell, and the
library was hard put to prepare the new materials for circulation.^^
Because of the physical differences between print and braille books, it
did its own cataloging, eschewing the use of Library of Congress
printed cards. Thus, the staff had to type entry cards for author, tide,
shelf list, and accession files, as well as letter, book pocket, and
shelve the new materials before circulating them to waiting readers.
Service for the Blind distributed annual or semiannual Books for the
Adult Blind-produced print lists of project materials and of the dis-
tributing libraries where they could be borrowed. It encouraged pa-
trons to use the libraries nearest them. However, unwilling to work
"too much hardship upon the borrowers," it accommodated the many
readers who borrowed from its extensive collection of handcopied
(grade 1 Vi) books and preferred to read its press-braille books as well,
since it was simpler to be responsible to only one library."''* By 1934,
circulation was down only 5 percent over 193 1 , strongly suggesting
that it took "time and no little persistence to convince readers" to use
the nearest distributing library. ^^
The impact of the Project, Books for the Adult Blind, on the Braille
Transcribing Service was potentially greater. In 1932, its output of
78
History of the Library of Congress Program
volunteer-produced materials exceeded that of any previous year.
Both the transcribing service and the Library of Congress distributing
library — the assistant head of which was the director of the Braille
Transcribing Service — reassured Red Cross volunteers that they were
still needed to supplement the project by transcribing special books in
limited editions and light fiction. No "radical change in the existing
organization of the work of hand copying" was expected, except a
"sharper division of the kinds of books to be copied."^® The volun-
teer service would have to keep itself informed about the project's
production plans and to watch the Embosser's List (of forthcoming
brailled works) so as to be able "to assign a book to a transcriber with
tolerable certainty" that it would not be mass-produced "for a long
time, if ever." This caution applied particularly to volunteer press
works. A book that was both hand transcribed in a single copy and
small press-brailled by volunteers was still useful in small libraries.
But no distributing library would be "willing to pay even the small
amount asked by the Red Cross," the cost of paper and binding, if it
could "have the same book as a gift" through the project."*^
The federally funded production, under the administration of the
Library of Congress, of embossed books to be circulated by existing
libraries serving blind readers around the country was the logical next
step in the evolution of library service to the blind population. The
introduction of the talking book in the Books for the Adult Blind
project was revolutionary.
Talking Books
Development I
In the early 1930s, less than 20 percent of the blind population had
sufficient skill to make reading library books practicable and less than
10 percent sufficient to make it enjoyable. This was true largely be-
cause more than one-half of blind persons lost their sight after the age
of fifty, when it is often difficult to learn braille due to loss of fingertip
sensitivity."** AFB developed the talking book primarily with these
people in mind.
79
That All May Read
In his 1877 patent application, Thomas Edison had listed recorded
books for blind people as a potential use of his phonograph, but,
seeing no commercial possibilities, he did not develop the idea
further. In 1932, prospects were no better, due to the cost and bulk of
records. Both could be reduced by recording at a lower speed and
using more grooves per inch. Securing funds from the Carnegie Cor-
poration and from Mrs. William H. Moore, Robert Irwin, director of
AFB, set out to solve these and other technical problems, building on
advances in movie sound tracks and radio electrical transcriptions that
were not incorporated into popularly available records and players
until 1948, after the Depression and World War II. Fortunately, Irwin
was able to secure the services of an electrical engineer very knowl-
edgeable about contemporary technology, Jackson Oscar Kleber.
Under the guidance of these two men, AFB developed the talking
book. It settled on about 150 grooves per inch, 50 percent more than
commercial records had, as the optimum number to increase playing
time for recorded texts and yet avoid two problems: picking up sound
from adjacent grooves and excessively weakening the records, which
would have to travel through the mails. With the cooperation of RCA,
it developed a record material consisting mostly of vinylite to further
increase durability and reduce weight. It adopted 331/3 revolutions per
minute (rpm) because motors at that speed were available for radio
station use. Since ordinary phonographs for music records played at
78 rpm, AFB developed special low-cost machines, initially using
standard parts, that could play its slower-playing records. A 60,000-
word book could be recorded on eight or nine of these twelve-inch
records, the diameter chosen because pressing dies were available and
because it was the largest size that could be shelved conveniently.
AFB also developed sturdy mailing containers and appropriate
labels — on one side in print for the librarian, giving tide, author,
copyright credit, narrator, the number of records in the book, and the
number of each record; on the other side in braille for the reader,
giving title, narrator, and page (side) number. It established its own
recording studio and concluded that the best narrators were male radio
actors. Women, whose voices reproduced less faithfully, were gener-
ally used only when the text required it. The narration speed was 160
80
History of the Library of Congress Program
to 170 words per minute (wpm). AFB paid its early narrators five
dollars a side, and each side, playing about fifteen minutes, had to be
recorded without errors, there being no way to "erase" mistakes. ^^
Introduction by the Project
Even before securing the Carnegie grant, the foundation had
planned to supply talking-book machines to blind people and to try to
have talking books included in the Books for the Adult Blind project.
However, the majority of the blind population could not afford the
machines, which were sold at cost, originally twenty dollars for the
spring-driven model and thirty dollars for the electric model. Both
donors and blind readers were reluctant to buy machines until records
were available, and neither the Librarian of Congress nor Congress
itself was interested in providing talking books until enough people
had machines on which to play them. This impasse was resolved
when, on the last day of its existence, March 3, 1933, the Seventy-
second Congress passed a "clarifying amendment" to the Pratt-Smoot
Act. This "permissive" bill allowed The Librarian "at his discre-
tion" to use part of the customary Books for the Adult Blind appropri-
ation to purchase talking books, with the verbal stipulation that no
more than $10,000 was to be spent the first year. Fiscal 1934.^"
President Hoover signed the bill into law on his last day in office,
March 4, 1933.*' The Librarian of Congress declared that no talking
books would be ordered until at least 300 machines were in the hands
of blind readers. By spring 1934, that condition had been met through
AFB's successful fund-raising campaign, and on May 4, 1934, Con-
gress extended free mailing privileges to cover recorded books on loan
to blind readers.*^
The first talking-book titles Books for the Adult Blind ordered were
the four Gospels, the Psalms, the Declaration of Independence and the
Constitution of the United States, Washington's Farewell Address and
his Valley Forge letter to the Continental Congress, Lincoln's Gettys-
burg Address and his first and second inaugural addresses, a collection
of poems, Shakespeare's As You Like It, Merchant of Venice, Ham-
let, and sonnets, and six works of fiction, the first produced being
Gladys H. Carroll's As the Earth Turns, all in 100-copy editions. The
81
That All May Read
very first talking book produced was Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient
Mariner.
The distributing library at the Library of Congress, Service for the
Blind, began talking-book service in October 1934. As soon as rec-
ords were available for circulation, charitable people and groups in the
Washington area began raising money to buy machines for blind per-
sons who could not afford them. The acting director of the Braille
Transcribing Service accepted responsibility for temporarily storing
these gift machines (in the Library of Congress Mail Division), seeing
that they were properly distributed, and recording their disposition.
People volunteered to unpack, examine, and test the machines, as well
as deliver and demonstrate them to blind readers, each of whom was
asked to sign a simple agreement to return the machine when he or she
was no longer able to use it.
By June 30, 1935, the Library of Congress distributing library had
twenty-seven talking-book titles available for its 130 patrons with
machines. This "turning point in library work for the blind"^^ pre-
sented problems for all the distributing librarians, who had no experi-
ence dealing with recordings and who needed to establish new
policies — for example, some sort of certification, perhaps by AFB,
that the patron had a talking-book machine before the library would
provide recorded books. (AFB required certification by a physician
before it would sell these machines.) Certification was necessary for
several reasons: to protect the records from damage on an inappropri-
ate machine and to assure that books recorded for blind readers were
not made available to the sighted. Braille had presented no such prob-
lems. Questions also arose about the period of loans for talking books,
special instructions to borrowers, examining returned records,
cataloging, and shelving.
In Fiscal 1936, patrons were required to submit registration cards
showing the models and serial numbers of the machines they used.
The Library of Congress distributing library sent to its 315 talking-
book readers Books for the Adult Blind-provided booklets of instruc-
tions and lists of ninety-one titles produced under the federal program,
including Alexander Woollcott's While Rome Burns, nanated in part
by the author. The ALA Committee on Work with the Blind met in
May and suggested "ways and means" of handling the new medium,
82
History of the Library of Congress Program
including "uniformity in reporting the number of talking-book records
circulated, charging systems, and the feasibility of supplying with
each box of records a sufficient number of needles, i.e. , one steel
needle for each side of every record."^
By April 17, 1935, 1,300 machines had been sold nationwide. The
project was ordering 125 copies of each title, twice the size of its
braille editions, and, word for word, talking books cost about twice as
much as braille books. Clearly it was impossible to meet the growing
demand for talking books without drastically curtailing the amount of
braille materials produced. On June 14. 1935, with some 2,200
machines in use, an act of Congress authorizing an increase in the
annual Books for the Adult Blind appropriation to $175,000 was
approved; the additional $75,000 was allotted to talking-book produc-
tion.^^ And AFB published the first (June 1935) issue of Talking Book
Bulletin, later renamed Talking Book Topics, in mimeographed form,
listing the recorded titles available and providing other information of
interest.
Growth and the WPA Operation
During the Great Depression , few people could afford to buy
talking-book machines for themselves or as charitable donations.
However, AFB devised a way to use economic recovery legislation to
further the talking-book program. In April 1935, it wrote President
Roosevelt to suggest a Works Progress Administration (WPA) opera-
tion to produce the special machines required. They should remain
government property, it said — the Library of Congress perhaps taking
title — and be distributed to state commissions for the blind for loan to
blind people. Following a meeting with Helen Keller and the president
of AFB, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt personally expedited
the operation, which, technically, did not meet the labor-intensive
requirement of the administration. The Library was not eager to be-
come involved, believing that the distribution of phonographs was an
unseemly and alien function for a scholarly institution. Because the
future of the talking-book program depended on the WPA operation,
AFB offered to relieve The Library to whatever extent it desired "of
all details connected with the distribution" of the WPA machines.^®
83
That All May Read
On condition that lending agencies assume responsibility for repairs,
The Library agreed, and on September 19, 1935, Roosevelt signed an
executive order transferring $2 1 1 ,500 to the Library of Congress for
the manufacture of 5,000 electric talking-book machines. The Library
promptly appointed AFB as its agent to supervise both the manufac-
ture and the distribution of the WPA machines.
In 1936, AFB began having Talking Book Topics typeset for the
approximately 4,000 talking-book users. *^ By June 30, the first 5,000
WPA-produced machines had been distributed to state commissions
for the blind and similar agencies. The receiving agencies paid ship-
ping costs from the plant in New York City, thereby saving about
$10,000 in WPA funds, enough to supply 200 additional readers with
machines. With fewer machines than blind people, many agencies
found it necessary to rotate equipment among interested readers.
The WPA machines were lent subject to conditions imposed by the
Library of Congress. Each reader was required to agree to use the
machine regularly and properly, exercising reasonable care; to make
no repairs except with the permission of the lending agency; to surren-
der the machine if it was recalled by the agency or The Library and
report any change of address promptly; and to provide the name of the
library from which materials were borrowed during the preceding six
months. To be eligible to borrow a government-owned machine, the
reader had to have "a defect of vision which made it impossible or
unsafe to read ordinary printed books," to be likely to give the records
and the machine proper care, to have "sufficient intelligence to enjoy
reading," and to be "unable, without undue [financial] sacrifice, to
buy a talking-book machine. "°*
The demand for talking books was impressive. Lucille Goldthwaite
reported diat the New York Public Library's 1936 statistics showed
"more reading [was] accomplished" with talking books than with
braille; that is, the circulation of its 130 or so recorded titles exceeded
that of its more than 4,000 braille titles. ^^ Among the talking books
produced the following year were several read in whole or in part by
their authors: Representative Kent E. Keller's Prosperity through
Employment, 'William Bcehe's Half Mile Down, and Stephen Vincent
Benet's John Brown's Body.
By June 30, 1937 — twenty-one months after it began — the WPA
84
History of the Library of Congress Program
operation had been allotted a total of $568,000 in Emergency Relief
Appropriation funds, and 13,200 electric talking-book machines had
been or were in the process of being distributed. About 2, 100 spring-
driven machines, with headphones instead of loudspeakers, were held
up in production by the WPA operation due to delay in importing the
motor required. In addition, about 3,000 machines not provided by
federal funds were in use. However, for the 16,200 or so machines in
the hands of blind readers, the Project, Books for the Adult Blind, had
been able to distribute only 16,740 containers of talking books, repre-
senting some 145 different titles — little more than one container per
reader. Congress appropriated an additional $100,000 for talking
books in Fiscal 1938, bringing the total annual funding therefor to
$175,000,'^° and allowing production of 12,813 containers of
records — a number equal to three-fourths of all the previous stock —
averaging about thirteen records each and representing almost 250
different books. Even though additional WPA funds allotted for more
machines would shortly drive the number of talking-book readers over
20,000, the project expected the increased appropriation would allow
it steadily to increase the proportion of talking books to users.
In Fiscal 1 938 , the project gained a second producer of talking
books. In 1936, APH had obtained a ruling that allowed it to man-
ufacture and distribute talking books in its textbook program for blind
children, on the same grounds that they had been included in the
Books for the Adult Blind project: books are books, whatever form
they take. The following year, APH had begun distributing to schools
such recorded titles as Silas Marner, Treasure Island, and Gulliver's
Travels, produced entirely in its new studio and plant. •*' And the year
following that, APH supplied thirty-two talking-book titles for the
project, much to the satisfaction of both AFB, which could not pro-
duce as many recordings as were needed, and The Library, which
made a conscious effort to divide the work between the two organiza-
tions in order to keep them competitive. The existence of a second
source had made it necessary for the project to draw up specifications
to maintain and, if possible, improve the quality of records. It invited
suggestions from both its producers and consulted the National Bureau
of Standards and other governmental agencies with technical exper-
tise. Specifications were published in December 1937 with full
85
That All May Read
awareness they would soon need modification.
In Fiscal 1938, the Books for the Adult Blind project produced, at a
somewhat higher cost than usual, twenty-five plays recorded with full
casts of actors, ranging from "Sophocles to Thornton Wilder and
Eugene O'Neill, from Shakespeare and Goethe to the brothers Quin-
tcro and Bernard Shaw.""^ This practice was discontinued during the
war and followed only sporadically thereafter. Such recordings made
it easier for patrons to follow the action of the plays and represented a
considerable technical achievement for AFB.
In 1939, AFB produced a recorded version of Talking Book Topics,
historically the first recorded magazine, which it sold for one dollar a
year on subscription.®^ For Fiscal 1939 and 1940, the WPA operation
was allotted S301 ,000 for 4,600 electric and 900 spring-driven
talking-book machines and other items, including 140,000 record en-
velopes and 9,000 containers to replace those worn out in service,
which had formerly been purchased with Books for the Adult Blind
funds. And Congress increased the annual Books for the Adult Blind
appropriation for talking books to $250,000 beginning in Fiscal
1941 ,^* during which the project instituted simple quality control pro-
cedures for recorded titles, requiring producers to supply test copies
before it would authorize shipment to distributing libraries; and
WPA-funded containers were for the first time used in shipping newly
completed recordings to libraries, permitting the project to purchase
more talking-book titles with its appropriation. During these years,
works released narrated in part or entirely by their authors included /
Married Adventure, by Osa Johnson; The Woollcott Listener, by
Alexander Woollcott; Mrs. Miniver, by Jan Struther (in its entirety);
A Peculiar Treasure, by Edna Ferber; Buddenbrooks , by Thomas
Mann; and the poet's prologue to Conquistador and Frescoes for Mr.
Rockefeller' s City, by Archibald MacLeish. who was the Librarian of
Congress at the time.
By June 30, 1941 , after seven years of involvement with talking
books, the Books for the Adult Blind project had provided some 540
recorded titles to distributing libraries, and almost 23,000 machines
(3,000 of them spring-driven) were available for loan through lending
agencies to the adult blind population. In 1941 , the regionals served
15,600 patrons who read only talking books, 35 percent more than the
86
History of the Library of Congress Program
total number of patrons who, according to an ALA survey, read em-
bossed books borrowed from libraries for the blind in 1930.®^ In
addition, more than 4,000 readers of embossed type were also using
talking books.
Statistics
In 1937, the Project, Books for the Adult Blind, had undertaken to
gather statistics from the distributing libraries. Previously, data had
been collected by the ALA Committee on Work with the Blind, which
helped draw up the new annual statistical form requesting all data
formerly collected plus other highly useful information. In the pro-
cess, the project tried to solve "certain vexatious problems in
enumerative nomenclature" in order to make comparing statistics
feasible.®^ It first published statistics for all the libraries in 1938:
geographical areas and readers served (number, type of materials
read, e.g., braille grade l'/2 or Moon), collection, and circulation.
Such data permitted both a more efficient distribution of materials,
preventing the accumulation of inactive materials on library shelves,
and a more realistic view of library activities. For example, in gather-
ing statistics for 1938, the project asked the distributing libraries to
supply, not the number of readers registered for each format, as they
had the previous year, but the number of those who acujally borrowed
books during the year. Thus the project could report that the number
of talking-book readers in 1938 was 15 percent greater than all the
readers of embossed systems, whereas the previous year's figures had
shown 35 percent more registered (but not necessarily active) borrow-
ers for embossed books than for recorded titles. Some libraries had
kept their patrons' files up to date; others still included readers regis-
tered as far back as 1 927 , 1 9 1 3 , or even 1 905 , whether or not they
were active. Thus, in Fiscal 1938, the Library of Congress distributing
library and others had perforce to re-register their borrowers.
The 1938 data also showed that talking-book circulation had in-
creased 67 percent and all circulation 12 percent over the previous
year, and that 76 percent of talking-book readers did not read em-
bossed type at all — the entirely new group of patrons AFB had en-
visioned. Circulation of embossed books had increased 5 percent over
87
That All May Read
1937 and 64 percent over 1929, two years before the Books for the
Adult Blind project was established. These figures suggested that the
introduction of recorded books did not cause a reduction in the reading
of embossed books and that the circulation of more than 300,000
containers of talking books was "all clear gain. "®^
The growth in talking-book readership and circulation had been
aided by the increased Books for the Adult Blind appropriation for
recorded titles in Fiscal 1938. To meet the growing demand for rec-
ords, AFB bought more studio equipment and began setting up units
to process its master discs and to press records, beginning to phase out
the contracting out of this work.®*
Talking- Book Problems Solved
The years 1937 to 1939 saw the solutions to a number of problems
resulting from the rapid-fire events of the previous years. With the
Books for the Adult Blind project's annual appropriation at $175,000
for talking books, commercial firms had become interested in bidding
on contracts. With thousands of machines in daily use, the project had
to deal with growing repair problems. With more than $300,000 in-
vested in records, the project had discovered that they were being
damaged by the pickup arms on the first four talking-book machine
models and by patrons who were not using a new needle for each side
of a disc. And the project found it had a copyright problem.
Although most commercial record manufacturers discovered that
they could not compete with the prices charged by the two nonprofit
agencies that had been producing talking books, one made a deter-
mined effort to secure a bid, forcing the project into extensive corre-
spondence and sample testing; finally, the whole matter was referred
to the National Bureau of Standards. In the meantime, the project's
recording schedule was interrupted. Although its annual funding per-
mitted it to buy seventy recorded titles a year, in Fiscal 1939 it pro-
duced only thirty-five, in 140-copy editions. Congress added the
amount not spent, about $72,000, to the project's appropriation for the
next year and passed a bill signed into law June 7, 1939, declaring that
the Librarian of Congress "shall give preference to non-profit-making
institutions or agencies whose activities are primarily concerned with
88
History of the Library of Congress Program
the blind, in all cases where the prices or bids submitted by such
institutions or agencies are. by said Librarian, under all the circum-
stances and needs involved, determined to be fair and reasonable."'®^
Among the reasons adduced for this requirement were the need to
assure steady production by placing sufficient orders with nonprofit
organizations and the possible difficulties obtaining copyright clear-
ance if commercial firms produced talking books. ^°
During this period, 5 to 7 percent of commercial phonographs with
electric pickups were expected to need repair in the first two months of
use. It was fortunate that only 0.66 percent of the WPA machines
needed repair in their first two years of use because in many areas few
mechanics were experienced enough to make even minor repairs.
Also, the cost of transporting machines and of the repairs themselves
became a serious financial burden for lending agencies; several could
not meet the costs involved. The WPA contract was therefore changed
to include repair work; and, an act of Congress approved May 16,
1938, modified the postal laws to permit mailing talking-book
machines, properly wrapped and labeled, to nonprofit agencies at one
cent a pound for repair. (At the same time, it raised the weight limit
for free mailing of talking books from twelve pounds to fifteen. Many
books weighed slightly more than twelve pounds and had to be mailed
in two containers, whereas the fifteen-pound limit accommodated all
but the largest books in a single container.)" Many agencies took
advantage of the lower postal rates — postage both ways ran less than
one dollar — to send machines to the WPA operation for repair. There
they were given a thorough examination by experts, and worn parts
were replaced. This work became such an important function of the
WPA operation that a portion of the allotted funds was specified for
repairs in Fiscal 1940. From January 1 , 1940, to June 30, 1940,
almost as many parts were reconditioned as in the entire preceding
year. About 19 percent of the repairs involved amplifiers, 36 percent
involved motors, and more than 45 percent pickup arms.
The problem with the pickup arms had been recognized before
1940. In Fiscal 1938, AFB developed a new model machine with an
improved pickup arm which offered superior performance charac-
teristics. The new arm was better constructed, reducing the need for
repair, and weighed almost 50 percent less than the previous arm.
89
That All May Read
reducing record wear. It was made entirely by the WPA operation,
whereas the previous arm had been bought. In addition, AFB devel-
oped a new AC motor weighing several pounds less than the AC/DC
motor previously used and with fewer points where defects and wear
could occur. With such a large and growing investment in records,
7,000 replacement pickup arms were included in the WPA Fiscal 1940
allotment for gradual replacement in older machines.
Record damage was also attributable to the failure of readers to use
high-quality needles or to insert a new one for each side of a disc.
Therefore, the WPA contract was expanded to include 1 1 million
needles in Fiscal 1938 (as well as 2,700 electric machines and the
completion of 2,100 spring-driven machines begun earlier, plus 500
more). The Books for the Adult Blind project undertook, through the
WPA operation, to buy needles in bulk, have them counted into pac-
kets of forty by visually handicapped workmen, and ship the packets
to regional libraries, which would insert a packet into each container
sent to a patron. The WPA operation provided a total of 33 million
needles in Fiscal 1939 and 1940.
The recorded format involved the Books for the Adult Blind project
in copyright difficulties for the first time. With braille, obtaining
copyright clearance had never really been a problem because it was
not seen as a threat to profits. From the very beginning, AFB, which
had secured copyright permission, and The Library were at pains to
see that recorded materials were properly controlled. The first talking
books all carried appropriate copyright notices, and the project's in-
structions for machine users warned that the records were to be used
only by blind individuals, never for public performance or on the
radio. However, the dramatic growth in talking-book users resulted in
an increasing reluctance on the part of publishers to grant clearance,
reaching the point in 1936 where the project was practically limited in
its selection of titles to books published before July 1 , 1880. This
situation was particularly unsatisfactory because it deprived patrons of
recent works on science and other disciplines and because many of the
older readers, for whom talking books had primarily been created, had
already read the early literature before losing their sight. ^^ Praising
publishers for the extraordinary cooperation that they had always dis-
played, the project pointed out that its talking-book editions were
90
History of the Library of Congress Program
small, their distribution controlled, and its patrons not potential buyers
of print books .
But basically the publishers were concerned, not about misuse of
talking books for blind readers — none had been reported — but about
establishing a precedent which might allow books to be recorded
commercially without payment of royalties. Finally, on July 8, 1938,
after consultation with The Library, its two producers (AFB and
APH), and several print publishers, the Book Publishers Bureau dis-
tributed to its member publishers a plan of controlled distribution. It
suggested permitting the use of copyrighted materials for talking
books for blind people either for a nominal fee, to establish precedent
in case commercial books followed, or without charge. The Library,
which administers the operation of U.S. copyright law, agreed to act
as clearinghouse for copyright permission and to report regularly to
the bureau on the permissions sought and granted and the number of
recordings made. Both APH and AFB agreed to conditions imposed
on producers. In addition to their previous practice, they agreed to
include "Solely for the use of the blind" on the label and narrate the
same information, plus the publisher's name and "Recorded solely for
the use of the blind, with the permission of the author and publisher"
at the beginning of each record. The Library has never paid royalties.
But the key to avoiding copyright infringement in the use of talking
books for blind readers was control of talking-book machines. The
Books for the Adult Blind project was also responsible for knowing
the location of the government-owned machines, and, with only one
available for every six blind people in the country, for placing them
where they would be well used. This required reports from the dis-
tributing libraries. In addition to submitting annual reports listing
machines on loan in their areas, with the names and addresses of
borrowers, the distributing libraries also had to make checks on usage
and report the results, when appropriate, to the project, since its
regulations required recalling a machine if the reader had not bor-
rowed a talking book in the previous two months. Thus, by Fiscal
1938, the project was exercising a modicum of administrative control,
setting policy and issuing regulations on machines which directly
affected distributing libraries.
91
That All May Read
Narrators
Any discussion of the success of the talking-book program must
recognize the role played by the narrators. Authors narrating their own
works added prestige to the program. One of the factors contributing
to the passage of the law giving preference to nonprofit organizations
was their ability to attract authors and other famous people as nar-
rators. For example, in addition to those already cited, Eleanor
Roosevelt recorded the first chapter of This Is My Story in 1938,
while she was still the First Lady."
Many luminaries of stage, screen, film, and radio also narrated
talking books during this period, including Eva La Gallienne (Oscar
Wilde's "Birthday of the Infanta" and "The Nightingale and the
Rose"). Otis Skinner (selections from Shakespeare and from Booth
Tarkington's Mister Arnold), Dame Sybil Thorndike (Arnold Ben-
nett's "Letter Home"), and Alfred Drake (D. H. Lawrence's "Prus-
sian Officer").'^
But the high quality of the pioneering professional narrators was
what ultimately made the talking book not only acceptable but useful
and enjoyable to thousands of blind people. The first woman narrator,
Ethel Everett, recorded more than 100 titles, among them all of Helen
Keller's books. Terry Hayes Sales, who began narrating in 1937,
ultimately recorded more than 300 books, and Alexander Scourby
recorded more than 400 titles between 1937 and 1982 and was still on
the active list. Scourby has narrated everything from the Bible to a
book of limericks, from Canterbury Tales to Jonathan Livingston
Seagull; but his most difficult assignment was probably Ulysses,
which took 2'/2 months to record and required much research, since he
had to know exacdy what Joyce was saying in a very abstruse text.
Narrators must prepare for recording by verifying the pronunciation
of words, analyzing the flavor and mood of the work, studying
characters in order to project them accurately, working out dialects
and inflection, and inoculating themselves against any humor. In the
early days of the program, the demand was so great and the supply so
short that patrons happily read whatever talking books they were able
to get: requesting a particular book was out of the question. Today,
patrons often express a desire to read anything recorded by a particular
narrator. Indeed, readers often think of narrators they hear repeatedly
92
History of the Library of Congress Program
as friends. And narrators often take a personal interest in their work.
For example, when John Knight, who narrated the first talking book,
died in 1946, he left The Library a bequest which was later used to
build a tape recording studio at what was by then the Division for the
Blind.
But basically, the success of the talking book — indeed, its very
existence — must be attributed in large measure to AFB, which ful-
filled the role envisioned for it by its founders by conceiving the idea,
developing the record and playback equipment, persuading the federal
administration to create a WPA operation and supervising the produc-
tion and in many cases the repair of talking-book machines, producing
most of the records, and founding Talking Book Topics to announce
new titles.
Regional Circulation
In 1937, the Project, Books for the Adult Blind, imposed a geo-
graphical area of service for its materials on each of the twenty-eight
distributing libraries, a decree particularly effective because of the
popularity of talking books. From the beginning, geographical loca-
tion had been a consideration in the selection of distributing libraries.
In 1936, the project had tentatively restricted circulation of its mate-
rials to a specified area for each distributing library. But the older,
established libraries, each with its own distinctive embossed collec-
tion, were not anxious to limit their circulation to specific service
areas; they did not want to "abandon" widely scattered readers, even
though all distributing libraries were receiving the same recorded and
brailled materials from the project. That "'no library wished to restrict
an activity at once beneficent and appreciated, even in favor of possi-
ble expansion in a more restricted area"" is clearly illustrated by the
response of the distributing library at the Library of Congress. As-
signed an area consisting of the District of Columbia, Maryland,
Virginia, and South Carolina, it promptly announced that it
"hesitate[d] to disturb" its patrons in Florida, Alabama, North
Carolina, Tennessee and West Virginia by "referring them to other
libraries for material" and would therefore continue to serve them
unless it interfered with service to those in its "legitimate territory. "^"^
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That All May Read
Yet, when the assignments, with minor modifications, were made
permanent in 1937, the Library of Congress regional library, for one,
was delighted with the increased efficiency of its circulation depart-
ment due to decreased demand. Its collection consisted of almost
34,000 volumes, occupying space equivalent to that required by about
70,000 print books; overcrowding made it difficult to locate and prop-
erly reshelve books, and less circulation eased the problem. Noting
that it had "always recognized the value of localized service," the
regional reported that the assignment of "territories'" had eliminated
to a considerable extent "duplication and overlapping of services by
different libraries, confusion in records, and unequal distribution.""
It must also have simplified the project's record keeping, since
machines were distributed by agencies serving a single state or part of
one. The project also urged the regionals to restrict their activities to
their assigned areas regardless of the source of the materials, in order
to achieve greater economy in handling, record keeping, and mailing.
Braille
While the talking-book appropriations rose from $75,000 for Fiscal
1936 to $250,000 for Fiscal 194 1 , the appropriation for embossed
materials remained at $100,000 throughout — for valid reasons.
Press-braille materials cost less to produce than recorded ones and
lasted longer; a talking book wore out after about seventy-five play-
ings. Moreover, volunteers could braille but, at this time, not record
materials on request. Further, raised type was an established medium
and distributing libraries had established, if disparate and uneven,
collections of it; many titles basic to a good collection were already
available somewhere, although perhaps in obsolete type. But through
recordings. Books for the Adult Blind was creating an entirely new
library for an (almost) entirely new group of patrons, mostly readers
who had lost their sight well after their school years. Strong braille
readers, on the other hand, were fewer in number and typically were
born blind or had lost their sight as children. Thus, the disparity in
funding did not represent a real danger that talking books would
supersede braille books, in fact, some books are poorly suited to
recording — those depending heavily on charts, tables, diagrams, il-
94
History of the Library of Congress Program
lustrations, or footnotes, and those with parts the reader will want to
reflect on or refer back to. The true conflict in the 1930s, such as it
was, developed entirely within the world of braille over uniform type
and selection.
Braille Grades V/i and 2
Standard English Braille, grade 2, was adopted in July 1932 by a
conference of American and British organizations. It had been pro-
moted by AFB and approved by committees representing American
Association of Workers for the Blind and American Association of
Instructors of the Blind. After the conference report was published on
November 16, 1932, the Books for the Adult Blind project established
the policy of ordering the vast majority of its embossed books in the
newly adopted standard type for all English-speaking countries.
American Revised Braille grade 1 Vi and English Revised Braille grade
2 shared the saine alphabet and 44 contractions, but the latter type
used about 140 additional contractions. Among other compromises,
the uniform grade 2 incorporated all but the least useful of the English
contractions. For example, in grade Wi, nation required six cells; in
grade 2, only three: /;, plus the two-cell sign for ation. Thus grade 2
was harder to learn but faster to read and less expensive to produce
and store than grade 1 Vz . The adoption of the uniform type did not
automatically make grade 1 V2 obsolete. Anyone who could read grade
2 could also read grade 1 Vi , but the reverse was not true. The Books
for the Adult Blind appropriation had been a strong incentive to stand-
ardization, and, of course, the project hoped that further economies
could be achieved through international exchange.
Even before the conference, however, the Braille Transcribing Ser-
vice had stated that its policy would be "in the main to continue the
training of transcribers in Braille, Grade Wi'" because many readers
would be slow in learning grade 2 and handcopied books in grade 1 Vi
would be in "even greater demand" if the printing houses changed
over to the new system"** — which they did, except for elementary
textbooks produced by APH and for works in Moon type. Competent
volunteer transcribers could learn the new code if they wished, but
they received little encouragement from the transcribing service. Its
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That All May Read
policy was ironic, given the fact that volunteer transcribers "more
than any other one factor" had popularized grade IVi when it was
adopted as the uniform American type some fifteen years before. ^^
The Standard English Braille handbook prepared by a joint
American-English committee proved inadequate and in 1934 a five-
member committee of Americans, including the director of the tran-
scribing service, was appointed to iron out the difficulties. That year
the service was preparing a new manual based on the principles of
grade 2 but covering only grades 1 and 1 Vz . It was not until five years
after the adoption of Standard English Braille that the transcribing
service published an instructional manual for sighted persons wishing
to learn to transcribe the new uniform type. The following year it
published a braille version, produced by the Southeastern Pennsyl-
vania Chapter, Philadelphia, of the Red Cross, for blind instructors
and proofreaders, and a revised edition of the manual for grades 1 and
IVi. The latter was revised again in 1940 and 1942.
Around 1934, the Books for the Adult Blind project began provid-
ing a bibliographic current awareness service in braille to its patrons
through a monthly periodical circulated by distributing libraries.
Braille Book Review (BBR) listed new braille books, both press-made
and handcopied, giving the library location of the latter and descrip-
tive annotations of the former. It also included reviews and other book
news of interest to readers of embossed type. It had been started in
193 1 by the New York Public Library and the American Braille Press
in Paris as a braille monthly sold by subscription. When the press
withdrew, the library continued publication on its own in dittoed
form, beginning with the January 1934 issue, distributing BBR free
for several months until the project stepped in.^" With its February
1935 issue, BBR began listing new talking-book titles as well, and the
August-September 1936 issue listed a braille catalog, available free
from APH, of talking books provided by Books for the Adult
Blind — apparently a braille edition of the project's Talking Book Ti-
tles, Augusts, 1934, to June 30, 1936. In 1940, AFB took over
publication of BBR, in mimeographed and brailled formats, the latter
provided to distributing libraries by the project. Lucille Goldthwaite
edited BBR from its inception until mid- 195 1 . BBR was one of a
series of magazines offered by the project in sufficient numbers to
96
History of the Library of Congress Program
meet demand. The eight braille periodicals the project listed in 1935
included three, in addition to BBR, still provided by the Library of
Congress program in 1982: The Hampstead, Progress, and Braille
Mirror.
In 1936, the project distributed a union catalog showing the clas-
sification and ownership of some 6,000 handcopied books, mostly in
grade IVi, in libraries serving blind readers in 1934, compiled by the
Braille Transcribing Service. The manuscript had been transcribed on
metal plates, interpointed braille, by volunteer stereotypists, and the
service had proofed both the print and braille editions. Volunteers had
printed and bound the 150 copies of the four-volume braille edition,
which the Books for the Adult Blind project disseminated through the
distributing libraries. The same year, the print edition was available
from the project free to libraries on request. On-time delivery of this
"monumental undertaking"**' spoke well of volunteer services and
may have led to the project's placing a large order with the Red Cross
presses for back titles that year and one for new titles in 1938. Pro-
ducing the union catalog was probably the transcribing service's
"greatest single achievement."*^ As a companion piece to Lucille
Goldthwaite's 1930 catalog of press-braille grade 1 Vi materials and its
supplement, the Library of Congress regional library declared, the
union catalog of handcopied books would "render its greatest service
by eliminating the necessity of ever-increasing research and corre-
spondence in response to inquiries as to material available" and it
would be "invaluable" to students planning courses of study.*''
Despite urging by the Books for the Adult Blind project that re-
gionals restrict all services to their assigned territories, the Library of
Congress distributing library continued to circulate its extensive col-
lection of grade 1 Vi materials nationwide, lending mostly handcopied
materials not otherwise available to patrons living outside its assigned
area — almost 900 such patrons in 1939 — as did other regional librar-
ies. In order to promote circulation of its grade 1 Vi materials, the
regional had, in 1934, issued a 1933 print supplement to its 1930 print
catalog. Yet between 1932 and 1937, circulation of grade Wi mate-
rials dropped by about 43 percent, whereas circulation of grade 2
materials tripled between 1934 (when the regional first reported such
figures) and 1937, although the growth of its collection in grade 2 was
97
That All May Read
only 75 percent greater than that in grade 1 Vi . In Fiscal 1937, the
regional declared it "welcome[d] additions of books in Grade Vh
Braille,"*'* and the next year it issued a four-volume braille catalog of
its grade Wi materials, embossed by the Southeastern Chapter of the
American Red Cross in a twenty-copy edition and available on loan to
readers nationwide. The catalog was expected to be useful for a long
time inasmuch as relatively little material was being produced in grade
V-h — only by volunteers and by APH for its elementary textbooks.
The catalog, which contained acquisitions through January 1938,
listed almost 4,500 titles, of which about half had been acquired since
January 1930. Again circulation in this type decreased, by about 35
percent between 1937 and 1939. Yet a substantial number of readers
preferred or could read only grade 1 V2 .
Indeed, by 1939, the Books for the Aduh Blind project was shocked
to find how few readers had learned grade 2. In 1937, it had an-
nounced plans to publish, in collaboration with Goldthwaite, of the
New York Public Library, a catalog of all press-braille books pro-
duced in the country, including earlier works in grade Wi. The next
step, it had said, a "possibility . . . worth considering, would be a
union catalog of all embossed literature, both press-made and hand-
made, at present available, with indication also of location of
copies. ""'^^ But, after producing grade 2 almost exclusively for six
years, the project found its own 1938 statistics showing that one-third
of adult American braille readers still did not read that grade. When
Martin A. Roberts, director of the Project, Books for the Adult Blind,
asked the 1939 biennial conference of American Association of
Workers for the Blind ( AAWB) the reason, he received not a direct
answer but a resolution requesting The Library to produce more books
in grade 1 Vi .**® This it stoutly refused to do, having no interest in
"turning back the hands of the clock."*' At the 1941 AAWB confer-
ence, nine years after Standard English Braille was officially adopted,
Verner W. Clapp, administrative assistant to the Librarian of Con-
gress, noted that "many leaders in Braille publicly express[ed] their
superior facility" in grade l'/2, that "the greatest volunteer source of
books (which almost by itself maintained the flow of literature during
the '20"s) still" adhered to grade 1 '/2 for the most part, and that
AAWB and American Association of Instructors of the Blind had
98
History of the Library of Congress Program
"never really given their stamp of approval or adoption" to the uni-
form type as their committees had reported in 1932. He wondered
whether more readers might not have learned the new code if volun-
teers had not continued producing materials in grade 1 V2 .**
When the Books for the Adult Blind project published its first
cumulative catalog. Books in Braille, 1931-1938, in Fiscal 1939, it
listed only books it had produced, arranged by subject, with explana-
tory notes and an index. The project sent copies to the regionals,
requesting comments on the catalog's arrangement and the desirability
of producing a braille edition for the patrons, who could not browse
library shelves for themselves, to increase circulation of its older
books. The response was favorable and the project's first braille
catalog of its braille books was published in Fiscal 1940. Five
thousand copies were distributed to the twenty-seven regionals.
Thus, by the end of the decade, adult blind readers could borrow
from their regional libraries magazines announcing new press-braille
and handcopied books, catalogs of older handcopied books produced
before October 1934 and available from various libraries across the
country, and catalogs of press-braille books produced by Books for
the Adult Blind between July 1931 and June 1939 and available from
regional libraries. Adults who had learned grade 2 could read any of
these materials; those who knew only grade l'/2 received little benefit
from the federal appropriation.
The official adoption of Standard English Braille clearly had not
meant its immediate practical implementation. The Braille Transcrib-
ing Service was concerned that many volunteers would not want to
learn the new, more complex code; also, clarifying the rules and
writing a new training manual took time. Furthermore, many a home
teacher argued that newly blind adults who had difficulty mastering
braille found grade IVi easier to learn than grade 2 because the system
was simpler. And they found handcopied braille easier to read than
press braille because the dots were firmer and the pages not inter-
pointed. Some blind people went on to learn the new standard type,
others stopped reading, many began reading talking books, but many
continued reading grade Wi.
Similarly, it was natural that distributing libraries with large and
distinctive collections in superseded type should wish to continue
99
That All May Read
circulating them to adult patrons who wanted to read them, wherever
they lived. Although braille grade IVi had been adopted twenty years
before, the 1938 statistics gathered by Books for the Adult Blind
showed regional libraries housed some 21 ,500 volumes in raised types
other than braille or Moon, such as New York Point, but circulated
only 800 volumes during the year. This represented a rather poor use
of limited shelf space. The Library of Congress regional was still
circulating books in New York Point as late as 1941, when demand
fell so low that it decided not to bother publishing statistics on it any
longer. But the major factor in both the persistence and the decline of
grade IVi was selection.
Selection
The Braille Transcribing Service repeatedly pointed out that it
neither competed with nor overlapped any other agency because it met
"special needs for material . . . not supplied through regular chan-
nels."*^ For example, APH provided textbooks for students up to
college level; the volunteer transcribing service provided leisure and
collateral materials for children, such as short stories and Girl and Boy
Scout handbooks, as well as textbooks for college students.
For many years, volunteers had transcribed textbooks for college
students of French, Latin, German, Spanish, Italian, English, law,
history, philosophy, economics, literature, mathematics, psychology,
and other subjects. ^° The first brailled copy of The Canterbury Tales,
The Odyssey in Greek, and Les Miserables in French were made by
hand.^' The student requesting materials provided the print copy and
used the transcription in loose-leaf form, remrning it to the transcrib-
ing service for binding and distribution to libraries. Many books went
to the Library of Congress. At the sixteenth biennial convention of
American Association of Workers for the Blind in 1935, the acting
director of the Braille Transcribing Service proposed that such mate-
rials be gathered into a single "students' library," independent of all
other libraries and freeing their staffs and shelf space. ®^ In 1936, the
Library of Congress distributing library provided a nucleus for the
students' library, eighteen handcopied titles (ninety volumes) of
foreign-language and history materials. Later APH assumed responsi-
100
History of the Library of Congress Program
bility for the collection. In most cases, after the requesting student
finished with the loose-leaf handtranscription, it went to APH for
binding, cataloging, and circulation to other students. Handtranscrip-
tions placed in local libraries were supposed to be reported to the
Library of Congress. The students' library was relocated in The Li-
brary in 1948.
In 1937, the Books for the Adult Blind project entered the field of
postsecondary textbooks. It undertook to produce press-braille limited
editions of thirteen legal textbooks, distributing one copy each to one
regional in each of the ten judicial circuits and notifying the 130 blind
lawyers known to AFB, as well as the distributing libraries, state
commissions for the blind, braille magazines, and various law associ-
ations, schools, and libraries of the fact. The project judged the ex-
periment so successful that it considered expanding the concept to
other fields, such as sociology, economics, music, political science,
anthropology, natural science, pure science, and the fine arts. By
1939, it had produced nineteen law titles, placed reprints of ten in
some twenty law schools, and ordered copies of the remaining texts
for them. The project took the position that, while such works were of
"less than very general interest,"**'* they "appear[ed] to meet exactly
the requirement which commended the establishment" of Books for
the Adult Blind to Congress.^ That is, their cost was prohibitive to
other agencies, including volunteer agencies.
Although the project said it tried to maintain for the general reader a
"fair proportion between those works which are of established worth
and informative" on the one hand and purely recreational reading on
the other, it also stated flatly that its "conscious endeavor" was to
create for the blind adult reader "out of the Government funds . . .
available (but not necessarily of indefinite continuance) a library of
reading whose value shall not diminish in the years to come, but
which shall prove to be of enduring worth both for his instruction and
his recreation." ®^
Since 1932, distributing librarians had constantly asked the Books
for the Adult Blind project to produce more light reading. The librar-
ians argued that their patrons needed "a larger percentage of books of
a popular nature than the average library" offered because they could
not buy such materials; patrons needed and wanted the "best current
101
That All May Read
literature,"" bestsellers, mystery stories, westerns, romances, and
popular nonfiction to keep "abreast of the times. ""^^ Indeed, back in
the early 1920s, when the Veterans Bureau provided "the only in-
stance ... in which librarians were given an opportunity to exercise
consistently their judgment in [braille] book selection," they chose
"interestingly written non-fiction" and a "predominance of light fic-
tion. "^^
A 1939 survey of subscribers to the braille Reader's Digest con-
firmed their judgment. The 1 ,250 respondents were not representative
of the general blind population in that they were younger, better
educated, and better employed. They definitely were readers: nearly
one-third had read ten to twenty-five books in the previous six months
and almost as many had read one to nine. Of the ten most popular
books with this "superior"" group, three were bestsellers of long
standing and only two were nonfiction, both highly readable and not at
all scholarly. Of the titles the group wanted to read, 70 percent were
fiction, whereas only one-third of the entries in the 1940 Books for the
Adult Blind catalog were fiction. These readers wanted stories,
whether fact ("readable nonfiction"") or fiction, books of current
interest to sighted people, and books on current topics.^**
It was this sort of reading that volunteers provided. The transcribing
service made an effort to have books people were talking about tran-
scribed "as soon as possible after the print publications."'®^ Its vol-
unteers also produced books on such subjects as massage, gardening,
etiquette, child care, diet, and health. In its 1934 report, it mentioned
books on handicrafts, cooking, salesmanship, and insurance, as well
as books in grade 1 for beginners. In contrast, the annual report of the
Books for the Adult Blind project that year proudly mentioned a "fine
array of biographies,"" particularly singling out a "substantial addition
toPlutarch"s Lives"" which completed its production of that work.'""
However, the project had its own survey to support its selections. In
1936 it had questioned about 1 ,000 patrons, inviting them to suggest
specific titles or to state their reading preferences generally. With
"very few exceptions,"" these readers had expressed an interest in
"works of a serious character in the fields of the classics, philosophy,
sociology, economics, science, history, belles lettres, art, literary
criticism, and established works of fiction."""" Thus the Project,
102
History of the Library of Congress Program
Books for the Adult Blind, considered "itself to have received a
mandate, from the blind as well as from Congress," on selection
policy. It believed that it was giving readers "what they want[ed], not
by giving them ephemeral successes . . . , but by selecting for them,
at their own suggestion and with the aid of experienced librarians and
bookmen, the best of current production, together with a constant
increment drawn from the literary treasures of the past. " '"^
No doubt the project's selection policy was determined in large part
by the Librarian of Congress himself, Herbert Putnam, a distinguished
Phi Beta Kappa scholar, lawyer, and innovative librarian. His succes-
sor wrote that the "whole fabric"" of the organization he inherited
from Dr. Putnam "depended from the Librarian as the miraculous
architecture of the paper wasp hangs from a single anchor. ' " ^"^ Thus,
Dr. Putnam made the final selection from a list of titles appropriate for
braining or recording submitted to him. In explaining its selection
policy, he compared the project to a public library in two ways: both
had a responsibility to "guide the taste of their readers,"" and, given
limited and public funds and a diversity of tastes, both had to com-
promise on selection.'"^ His concerns were not only intellectual but
practical, given his apparent conviction that Books for the Adult Blind
was a short-term project. Testifying before a congressional commit-
tee, he noted that, when interest in ephemeral works waned, the
master plates and discs became worthless, whereas those for "more
permanent literature"" could generate additional copies as needed for
future readers at relatively low cost.'"^ In contrast, volunteers were
concerned with meeting a reader's immediate needs.
The conflict, such as it was, was a draw: popular titles more like the
volunteer transcribing service"s would eventually predominate in the
collections of the Library of Congress program for blind readers, but
the vast majority of handtranscriptions would soon be produced in the
more concise grade 2 braille. The need for an efficient uniform type
was paramount.
New Responsibilities
In the early forties, the entrance of the United States into World War II
and the comprehensive reorganization of the Library of Congress
103
That All May Read
under a new Librarian iiad significant effects, direct and indirect, on
The Library's services to blind readers.
Braille Transcribing
Red Cross sponsorsiiip of the Braille Transcribing Service, which
began as a result of World War I, ended December 3 1 , 1942, when
that organization assigned priority to World War II relief work. The
Library of Congress assumed full responsibility for volunteer tran-
scription as of January 1 , 1943, in order to supplement and comple-
ment the supply of mass-produced books. The service, which had
been headquartered in the Library of Congress regional, became the
Braille Transcribing Section of the Project, Books for the Adult Blind,
renamed the Division of Books for the Adult Blind, "thus bringing
together the two main sources of adult braille literature in this coun-
try.'"'°*' Some chapters had disbanded when the Red Cross announced
its withdrawal, well before the end of 1942, others continued trans-
cribing under the new arrangement, and some individuals began
working directly with the division without local affiliation. Before
April 1943, new transcribers and proofreaders were certified by the
Red Cross, thereafter by the Library of Congress.
The division made a number of changes in policy. It announced that
transcribing in grades 1 and Wi would be "discontinued as soon as
reasonably possible."'"' Single-copy handtranscription in Standard
English Braille, grade 2, of general-interest materials, students'
books, and materials for professional people and other individuals
would continue. The grade 2 training manuals, which the Red Cross
had published, would be used until the division could produce its own
manual combining grades 1 V2 and 2 in one course of study. The
division found that the number of undistributed copies of the grade 2
training manual the Red Cross had given it was inadequate and ar-
ranged to have a 500-copy edition offset-printed. Thus ended another
rearguard action in the battle of the types.
In addition, with the volunteer book review committee of the
Braille Transcribing Service no longer in existence, a new selection
policy was instituted. No longer would lists of approved tides be
circulated for volunteers to choose from. Instead, transcribers and
104
History of the Library of Congress Program
readers were to submit suggestions for consideration by the chief of
the transcribing section for suitability, copyright date, size of print,
number of pages, illustrations, charts, and probable demand. Titles
recommended by the chief would go to the director of the division,
who would consider factors relative to their being press brailled. Once
a title was approved for volunteer production, the division would
secure copyright clearance and notify the person who had suggested it.
Placement — by Fiscal 1946 only in regional libraries — was guaran-
teed only for books authorized by this procedure. Volunteers were
encouraged to meet all financial costs involved in their handtran-
scriptions — about twenty-five dollars — because The Library was able
to pay for paper, shellac, and binding only under specified conditions
and for proofreading not at all. The new transcribing section had a
staff of four — the chief and the instructor/proofreader, both blind,
were assisted by two clerks.
The division thus could exercise better control over selection of
titles, avoiding "unfortunate duplication," and also produce inexpen-
sive limited editions of such specialized books as Osteopathic Princi-
ples in Disease, a work already ordered press brailled. Limited edi-
tions were particularly important with regard to vocational and occu-
pational literature for both civilians finding more acceptance in the
workplace and returning war-blinded servicemen. Small editions were
also appropriate for such works as a "scholarly history, or a long
literary classic, of limited popular appeal, but essential to the
serious-minded reader, and to a basic library collection."'"*
Wartime Measures
WPA funding for the manufacture of machines and parts expired as
of June 30, 1942, and, of course, was not renewed. The $1,181,000
allotted to the WPA operation since 1935 had resulted in the produc-
tion of 23,505 talking-book machines (3,000 of them spring-driven),
69.5 million needles, 7,000 pickup arms, 130,000 record envelopes,
40,500 record containers, and an unidentified number of replacement
parts. Some undistributed machines were sent to state lending agen-
cies during the war; but, because the country's resources were com-
mitted to the war effort, no additional machines were acquired until
105
That All May Read
1946. Shortages of copper, wax, zinc, and other priority materials
meant the production of smaller editions of recorded titles — 42 per-
cent fewer copies in 1943 and 46 percent fewer in 1944 than in 1942.
However, AFB was allowed to make 30 million needles so readers
could at least continue using the machines and records available.
Thousands of older machines in almost daily use for years were due
for replacement. The temporary solution was extensive repairs —
which had been covered by the WPA contract. An act of Congress
approved October 1 , 1942, increased the Books for the Adult Blind
appropriation by $20,000 beginning in Fiscal 1943 for the repair and
maintenance of Library-owned talking-book machines.'**^ On the basis
of competitive bidding, the division awarded a contract to AFB,
which expanded its own shops for the repair of machines it sold in
order to handle the additional work. It began operations on January
10, 1943. So many machines requiring repair had accumulated in the
state lending agencies that the 1942 statistics showed a temporary
decline of almost 1 ,000 readers. AFB continued to repair talking-book
machines for the division until the end of the war.
On June 13, 1944, the division's annual appropriation was in-
creased to $500,000, $400,000 of which was for talking books and the
repair, maintenance, and replacement of talking-book machines.""
The increase was needed because of the division's broader scope of
activities, particularly the provision of services to the military person-
nel blinded in World War II.
War-Connected Service
The Pratt-Smoot Act had specified preferential treatment of honor-
ably discharged U.S. military personnel blinded in the service of their
country. As part of its contribution to the war effort, The Library
loaned duplicate braille books to India, where they were used in the
training and rehabilitation of blind American, British, and Indian sol-
diers, and to Canada, whose British sources had dried up. Talking-
book records and machines and braille books were sent to American
prisoners of war in Germany. Early in 1944, the division made ar-
rangements to provide talking-book records and machines to rehabili-
tation centers for war-blinded servicemen. By July 1945, about 200
106
History of the Library of Congress Program
machines were in use at such centers and at nine other army hospitals
where temporarily or permanently blinded servicemen were being
treated for other injuries. Through special arrangements made by the
division, each patient could have a talking-book machine waiting for
him when he was discharged. By July 1945, about sixty such de-
liveries had been made and 500 new machines had been set aside for
others. More would be needed, since more than 1 ,000 servicemen had
been blinded in the war. The talking book was "one of the most
effective and immediately available aids to the rehabilitation of the
war-blinded.""'
The war also affected the selection process. Most important, it drew
attention to a third kind of blind reader by creating a "small but
extremely important group," the new war blind, young adults who
needed gainful employment."^ Almost no vocational materials had
been recorded. Volunteers could transcribe single copies of braille
materials, but the veterans' preferred medium was the talking book.
Although its funding was not sufficient to allow it to satisfy what
amounted to individual needs, the division did produce braille books
on radio, beekeeping, beef production, poultry husbandry, and rabbit
raising, with blinded veterans specifically in mind. Also, light recre-
ational reading generally not considered the sort to interest older pa-
trons was of great therapeutic value to the hospitalized blinded vet-
eran. In addition, during the war, the division recognized the need to
keep the blind citizen apprised of current world events. It produced
"important and timely books dealing with the history, causes and
problems of the . . . world crisis," as well as War Imperative Books
chosen by the War Book Panel of the Council of Books in Wartime."^
With the sometimes mutually exclusive selection criteria of
"timelessness and timeliness,"'" the latter was beginning to weigh as
heavily in the scales.
Consolidation
Between 1939 and 1944, under a new Librarian of Congress, Ar-
chibald MacLeish, The Library was undergoing a gradual but com-
plete reorganization on the basis of function. In one stage of that
process the Reference Department had been established in 1941, in
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That All May Read
effect combining everything that did not involve processing, adminis-
tration, copyright, or law. In this interim phase, the department's
structure did not reflect its functions: each of its various reading rooms
handled reference work, book selection, book services, and custody of
books on its shelves. The Division of Books for the Adult Blind
became part of the Reference Department and was given its first
full-time director. The Library of Congress regional was also part of
the new department, "nominally a section of the Reading Room Divi-
sion although actually quite autonomous in its operation."''^ In May
1943, all services for the blind at The Library were moved to the third
floor of the Annex. Their physical proximity, however, did not mean
they functioned as a single administrative unit. In its new location, the
regional again had adequate room for its collection, which was housed
on the floor above. Its growing collection continually presented a
storage problem, and The Library had no authority to destroy the
many little-used embossed books regional libraries could not accom-
modate.
In March 1944, the Reference Department was reconstructed in
terms of its principal functions — custody, circulation, and reference.
The Reading Room Division was dissolved, and custodial and circu-
lation responsibilities previously scattered among the reading rooms
and the special divisions were unified in Reference's Circulation Ser-
vices, under whose Loan Division the regional came. The book selec-
tion and reference functions of the Division of Books for the Adult
Blind remained in Reference, becoming the responsibility of the new
Public Reference Service. Its fiscal and administrative sections, which
handled details concerning the purchase and distribution of braille and
talking books and talking-book machines, were temporarily trans-
ferred to the administrative offices under the chief assistant librarian,
whose executive assistant was named acting director when the divi-
sion's first full-time director resigned in 1944. The Braille Transcrib-
ing Section remained a separate and distinct unit within the division,
performing its customary functions.
After almost two years under part-time administrators during the
war, in January 1946, the division was given another full-time direc-
tor, one who had served as head of a network of army libraries. He
108
History of the Library of Congress Program
was the first director who was not previously on the Library of Con-
gress staff.
The division's new director was impressed by the "diversity of
activities" involved in conducting its half-million dollar program,
"ranging from professional library techniques such as book selection
. . . through complete publishing programs in special media, experi-
mental research in sound reproduction systems, studio recording
problems, [and] manufacture of electronic equipment," to "coopera-
tive library planning, publicity, public relations, finance, personnel
and administration. ""** His annual report to the Librarian of Congress
noted repeatedly that this very diversity and the organizational pattern
needed to carry out the work made it difficult to write an annual report
under such typical library headings as "Acquisitions" and "Prepara-
tion of Materials" in the form required for The Librarian's own annual
report to Congress.
In addition, he remarked the incongruity of The Library's major
activities in "Service of Materials" for blind readers being reported
by the Library of Congress regional as a section of the Loan Division,
while the Division of Books for the Adult Blind reported national
figures, including the regional's. Noting that library services for blind
people were "scattered within the Library of Congress and locally
where historic accident had dropped them," and therefore "numerous
opportunities for service were not fully explored or developed," he
called for a ' 'consolidation of all work for the blind at the Library of
Congress" as well as at the National Library for the Blind, Inc.
(NLB), in Washington, D.C., into "one well planned and integrated
organization" with a larger budget."^ Both NLB and the Library of
Congress regional served the District of Columbia, Maryland, and
Virginia; each served one of the Carol inas.
On August 6, 1946, President Harry S Truman signed into law a bill
authorizing an increase in the division's appropriation from $500,000
to $ 1 , 1 25 .000, doubling the amount that could be spent for braille
materials, to $200,000,'"' and making po.ssible an "urgently needed
expansion. " "" New talking-book machines were desperately needed
to replace the 23,500 old WPA machines and to serve new patrons.
The division wanted to double or even triple the number of readers
109
That All May Read
served and provide a collection comparable to "general libraries in the
United States. "^^° As they had with the braille library collections
before the Books for the Adult Blind project was established at the
Library of Congress, patrons read what interested them in the
talking-book collection — consisting of fewer than 2,000 titles after ten
years — and then stopped borrowing records, giving up their machines.
If the division could produce more titles with broad appeal, the de-
mand would increase substantially but would be limited by the number
of talking-book machines available. The division felt the answer to the
acquisition problem was a new recording medium that would reduce
the size and cost of talking books.
The expanded program included the requested consolidation. On
September 16, 1946, NLB voted to accept The Library's invitation to
liquidate and merge with the division, and, on October 1 , the Library
of Congress regional was transferred from the Loan Division to the
Division of Books for the Adult Blind. On October 16, the name of
the division was changed to the Division for the Blind. Consolidation
was expected to give the division insights into the highly specialized
nature of the regionals' lending service and to effect economies.
The division was given enlarged, unified quarters in the main
building for offices, the testing studio, and experimental research
workrooms. The stacks and the staff engaged in circulation and
maintenance of the collection remained in the Annex. Of the approxi-
mately 25,000 volumes and containers the merger brought, more than
4,600 braille volumes, mostly single-copy editions, and 1 , 100 con-
tainers of talking books were added to the collection. The only books
kept were those that were in good condition, not duplicates of the
Library of Congress regional's holdings, and of literary and scholastic
value or by an author not represented in its collection, plus braille
music scores, current embossed magazine subscriptions, and all books
in foreign languages. The surplus NLB books and some eight tons of
surplus braille. Moon, and talking books weeded from the Library of
Congress regional collection were shipped to the American Founda-
tion for the Overseas Blind, benefiting blind people in other nations
and promoting international good will. Five members of the NLB
staff, all blind, were given responsibility for circulation. This assign-
110
History of the Library of Congress Program
merit necessitated the braiiling of labels for some 32,000 volumes and
containers, plus whatever readers' lists, catalog cards, and other rec-
ords had not already been brailled. Thus the merger, which added
North Carolina to its territory, doubled the Library of Congress re-
gional's staff, relieving its overworked personnel, who had been un-
able to check returned materials promptly. It later became necessary to
enlist volunteers to assist with the slow job of converting labels and
records to braille.
The merger provided another benefit to the Library of Congress.
The director of NLB suggested to persons who had been supporting
his library financially that their continued contributions would be
helpful to the expanded program at the Library of Congress. As a
result, a gift fund was established; by July 1947, twenty-six contribu-
tions were received. When the merger was legally complete in June
195 1 , NLB's capital assets of more than $36,000 were placed in the
National Library for the Blind Gift Fund. The Library committed itself
to ensure the continued employment of NLB's staff, all of whom were
blind, and to replace them with qualified blind applicants, if possible,
when their positions became vacant; in addition, they were given
federal retirement rights for their years of employment at NLB.
Consolidation increased the size of the division's staff during 1946
from twelve to twenty-three. The expanded program included up-
grading and further enlarging the staff. With circulation now added to
the production and distribution of talking books and brailled books,
both handmade and mass-produced, and the distribution of talking-
book machines, the division was reorganized by function into four
major units, in the expectation of a staff of forty permanent employees
the following year. However, out of a total budget of $ 1 million for
Fiscal 1948, Congress imposed a $50,000 ceiling on personal ser-
vices,'-' which effectively limited the staff to eighteen, plus tempo-
rary workers for special projects. Thus, the staff was unable to per-
form all the functions planned in the reorganization, such as providing
an extended field service program to assist regional librarians, pub-
licizing the program, establishing a union catalog of materials for
blind readers in this country and abroad, and expanding the volunteer
program to include recordings.
Ill
That All May Read
Eligibility
After the war, the poverty test for borrowing talking-book machines
was dropped.
In 195 1 , the eligibility requirement for service from the program
was changed to coincide with that used in administering relief in most
states: central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with
correcting glasses or a field of vision which at its widest diameter
subtended an angular distance of no greater than twenty degrees. '^^
Volunteers
At the end of World War II, the division was thinking about meet-
ing the textbook needs of blind veterans continuing their education
under the G.I. bill and those of other blind college students by or-
ganizing two elite corps, one of "recordists" and one of braillists.
However, this plan was never implemented, and by Fiscal 1948 the
division was referring blind students to groups of volunteers who
could do the work.
Volunteer-produced recordings had been foreseen by Robert Irwin
at the beginning of the talking-book program in 1935.^-^ It was not
until 1947, however, that equipment and motivation coincided and an
organized movement began, like that of Red Cross braillists after
World War I, in response to veterans" need for educational materials.
Using commercial equipment, such as the SoundScriber or the Gray
Audiograph, various groups across the country began producing
textbooks on plastic discs about six or seven inches in diameter, with
about twelve or fifteen minutes' reading time. This was instantaneous
recording on embossed discs. The quality of reproduction was not
high, but the recordings were a more practical solution than personal
readers, who were often hard to find and whose time was limited.
Such recording services proliferated chaotically, with independent
groups using different and incompatible equipment, techniques, and
standards, and sometimes recording the same texts.
Organized as a national coordinating body in 1950, the National
Committee on Special Recording was not successful in persuading
either the AFB or the division to take over its proposed responsibili-
ties. A schism within the committee resulted in its demise and the
112
History of the Library of Congress Program
establishment in 195 1 of the National Committee for Recording for
the Blind, Inc. (RFB), whose purpose was not only coordinating
existing groups but also establishing new units around the country,
using a New York Public Library group as both model and laboratory.
The new committee obtained a three-year annual $25,000 demonstra-
tion grant from the Ford Foundation and technical services and assist-
ance from AFB , mainly the use of ten linked machines that could turn
out simultaneous copies of a single master. '^'* The chief of the division
served as advisor and liaison between The Library and the committee;
other than strongly urging recording on tape in soundproof studios and
subsequent transfer to disc, he left guidance on recording techniques
to AFB, which also advised the committee.
The division limited itself to helping the committee establish a
catalog of titles already recorded and obtain copyright clearances. It
also agreed to consider establishing a centralized clearinghouse in The
Library for requests for specially recorded materials so that titles
previously recorded would be readily available and new titles could be
assigned for recording without delay. This arrangement paralleled the
role the division performed for volunteer braille transcribers.
The division was also improving its work with braille volunteers. It
began providing print books, paper, and money for proofreading and,
later, for binding and shellacking books authorized by the division for
handcopying. And, after three years of discussion, preparation, and
joint editorial work with APH, it published a new manual for Standard
English Braille, which sold at one dollar a copy. In Fiscal 195 1 , an
assistant instructor was appointed for transcribing and proofreading
courses so that after March of that year no applicants were refused
instruction because they could not find it locally. Work was begun on
a new proofreading manual. The division met with leaders of volun-
teer braille organizations and reached agreement on standards for
handtranscriptions, the way books were selected and assigned for
handcopying , and the importance of a union catalog of handcopied
materials.
In addition, in December 1952 The Library sponsored a conference
of volunteers active in recording and transcribing books, attended by
125 people from twelve states, the District of Columbia, and Canada.
By then RFB had seven units in operation, including one at Oak
113
That All May Read
Ridge, where scientists recorded textbooks in physics, chemistry,
biology, and other sciences; and it was expanding its program to
include "good books for . . . entertainment and enlightenment,"
checking with the division to avoid duplication. RPB was in effect
providing a library service with more than 400 books that had been
produced on demand by volunteers. A number of recording groups
presented papers at the conference. Volunteer Services for the Blind
(formerly the Southeastern Pennsylvania Chapter of the Red Cross)
reported that members recorded books at home for the permanent
libraries of students who requested them, rather than duplicating and
circulating them. The American Red Cross Chapter of Newark, New
Jersey, reported that its activities included recording materials for
students as young as fifth grade. The chapter at Elizabeth reported
incorporating braille supplements for such things as maps, and re-
cording New Jersey's new fire insurance rates for two blind salesmen.
Members of braille groups spoke at the conference also. Volunteers
Service for the Blind, Inc. , had trained specialists in math, music, and
foreign-language transcription and had organized transcribing groups
at the Eastern State Penitentiary of Pennsylvania and the New Jersey
Reformatory. The Braille Committee of Passaic brailled all the
textbooks needed by blind New Jersey high school and college stu-
dents.'^^
The conference's resolution called for The Library to provide a
central depository for little-used materials, a central mechanism for
clearing all titles before embossing or recording, instruction in braille
music notation, an errata list and an index for the 1950 Manual of
Standard English Braille, and a list for blind people of all volunteer
groups who would braille or record materials for them.*^^
One of the obstacles to the division's deeper involvement with
volunteer recording groups was the fact that standard talking-book
machines could not satisfactorily play embossed discs. In Fiscal 195 1 ,
the National Bureau of Standards had surveyed for the division the
work done on these discs at Volunteer Services for the Blind and the
New York Public Library. Its conclusion was that it was essential to
develop an acceptable embossing system and, if possible, improve the
performance of commercial disc-embossing equipment, as well as
adapt talking-book machines for playing as many different types of
114
History of the Library of Congress Program
embossed discs as possible. In Fiscal 1952, the division field-tested
machines adapted for playing embossed discs by installing on model
A machines a new pickup arm devised by AFB and approved by the
bureau. This arm pivoted freely and had a crystal cartridge mounted
on a rubber hinge at its end. If the arm proved satisfactory, the divi-
sion planned to buy enough to meet students' needs. However, by the
end of Fiscal 1954, it was apparent that the new tone arm did not
reproduce standard talking books with maximum quality and, in fact,
damaged them. The division therefore limited the number of machines
equipped with the arm to 1 ,000, believing that to be adequate for
student use. Of course, volunteers were producing materials of state or
local interest, not just textbooks, and the division was left with the
question of whether such materials justified providing more machines
with the special arm.
Selection and Access
In 1946, the division conducted three studies of patrons' reading
tastes. Two were based on a random sample of talking-book machine
agreements (on which reading preferences were given), divided into
veterans' and general users'. The third was based on 207 voluntary
letters received in response to an invitation the division placed in
braille magazines for braille readers to state their preferences. These
represented the three basic groups of patrons: skillful braille readers,
the young war-blinded, and older talking-book readers. The preferred
nonfiction subjects for braille readers were vocational materials and
biography. The nonfiction categories most preferred by talking-book
readers were travel, current affairs, and biography. Some marked
differences in talking-book readers' tastes appeared. Compared with
the general population of talking-book readers, 100 percent more vet-
erans wanted vocational materials, roughly 75 percent more wanted
detective fiction, and 55 percent more wanted westerns.
The division modified its selection process by hiring a professional
librarian as selection assistant in 1946 and bringing readers and the
regional librarians into the selection process on a routine basis,
through the Readers' Advisory Group and the Librarians' Advisory
Group. Although the recorded collection still lacked a large number of
115
That All May Read
classics, most of them had been brailled; therefore selection emphasis
for the braille collection began to fall on books of current worth.
Choosing one book over another was the responsibility of the selection
section. The selections assistant evaluated reviews, examined texts,
and compiled a quarterly list of titles under consideration, which was
then sent to all members of the advisory groups for comments. Guided
by the majority vote of the groups, the Library of Congress made the
final decision. In Fiscal 1948, regional librarians were given the op-
portunity during the selection process to indicate the number of copies
they wanted above the basic allotment.
In March 1949 and May 1950, the division issued classified anno-
tated cumulative catalogs of all press-braille and talking books, re-
spectively, produced before December 3 1 , 1948 — about 3 , 170 press-
braille titles since the program's inception and about 1 ,400 talking
books since August 1 , 1934. And, in Fiscal 1953, when AFB was
seriously considering discontinuing publication of Braille Book Re-
view and Talking Book Topics as an economy measure, the division
began underwriting the entire cost of producing these periodicals vital
to its service.
Machines
The division set up an automated inventory control for talking-book
machines. The fifty-five state agencies submitted new agreement
forms on IBM cards for all the machines allotted them. Verification
and reconciliation of discrepancies established a basic inventory in
Fiscal 1949.
When AFB wanted to withdraw from the centralized repair project
after the war, the division considered bids from commercial radio-
phonograph contractors located within fifty miles of The Library and
transferred operations in 1947. In Fiscal 1949, 75 percent of the
machines sent in for repair were so worn that it was judged less
expensive to replace them; the division cannibalized 900 such
machines that year. But 10,000 old machines were still in use by June
30, 1950.
The major problem of this period was the production of new
machines, an entirely new field for the division. It had hoped to take
116
History of the Library of Congress Program
advantage of technical advances made by the military during the war.
On May 15, 1945, it had convened a meeting of experts from other
governmental agencies, talking-book producers, and members of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development's Committee on Sen-
sory Devices. Dr. George Corner, chairman of that committee, de-
clared that it might eventually help with a new medium for recorded
books, but its immediate concern was the modernization of the exist-
ing talking-book machine, a project which was within the competence
of the recording industry and required no basic research.*"
A questionnaire survey of a cross-section of talking-book users
conducted by the committee in the mid- 1940s showed the problems
with machines in use. They broke down too often and could not be
repaired locally because their parts were nonstandard. A new needle
was required for each side of a record, and needles were difficult to
change. The tone quality was poor by contemporary standards.
Readers who did not have them wanted two-speed machines (78 and
SSVS rpm) so they could play commercial records and talking books on
the same phonograph. The result of the meeting had been a list of
features desirable in the new model. New features included a perma-
nent needle, if possible; a tone arm that was automatically put in place
on the record via a push-button control; improved tone quality; an
eight-inch speaker in the lid to avoid picking up motor vibrations; a
portable carrying case; and standard parts — all features that were
available commercially. The meeting recommended keeping two-
speed turntables, magnetic pickups, and earphone jacks. '^**
Apparently with no clear idea of whether it wanted to develop its
own equipment, the division bought 550 machines from AFB when it
resumed production of its last prewar model. However, a better
machine was possible and necessary, and the division decided to
develop a "truly satisfactory postwar model.'"'-'' Before the war AFB
had, in effect, formulated the specifications for talking-book machines
and needles, as well as records. In Fiscal 1947, the division bought
3,550 machines produced according to its own specifications. Of
these, 550 were set aside for veterans. The following year it asked the
National Bureau of Standards to write specifications for a new model,
R, and bought 7,500 of them at half the per-unit cost of the previous
year's model. The R model was smaller and lighter, played both
117
That All May Read
ten-inch and twelve-inch records, and was equipped with a semiper-
manent needle that could play about forty records without damaging
them.
Research and Development
In 1948, the National Bureau of Standards began an ongoing inves-
tigation for the division into the whole field of sound recording — film,
wire, and tape — including ten-inch discs recorded at 200 grooves to
the inch on thinner, lighter, more flexible materials, which still played
about fifteen minutes a side. The division ordered six experimental
records of this type. If successful, this kind of record would save
space and effort in the regionals, since a talking book would be more
compact. An average one would weigh only four pounds instead of
eleven.
For its more immediate needs, in November 1948, the division
contracted with the bureau for research, development, and testing, in
order to improve specifications for needles, record materials, and the
production of talking-book machines for use with existing talking
books. The three, of course, are interdependent. This contract resulted
in the first sustained scientific and technical supervision in developing
specifications for the talking-book system. As a result of testing sam-
ple machines submitted by potential bidders, the bureau developed the
S model machine. The division bought 12,000 and, beginning in
Fiscal 1950, 15,000 T model machines, with better tone control and
greater volume. That same year, the division adopted a semiperma-
nent needle with a 1 .8-mil tip radius as best suited for talking-book
reproducers.
About 1951 , both AFB and APH converted from the "direct mi-
crophone to wax master" method of recording to the "tape and lac-
quer" method. That is, they began making their master recordings
with professional magnetic tape recording equipment. Narrating errors
could be erased and sentences, words, and even syllables could be
rerecorded, cutting the number of retakes by 40 percent and allowing
the nairator to produce almost twice the number of masters in a given
period. Since the quality of the master was so much higher than the
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History of the Library of Congress Program
very best disc recording, texts could be recorded from tape to disc
with no loss of quality.'^"
About the same time, the bureau reported that conversion from the
old 155-lines-per-inch U-shaped grooves to the more desirable 240-
lines-per-inch U-shaped microgroove was possible but involved
problems of compatibility with existing machines and needles. A
needle suitable for existing records broke down the walls of the new
microgroove records. The bureau wrote interim specifications calling
for a modified V-shaped groove, cut at 155 lines per inch, which
would accept either a 1 .0-mil microgroove needle or the 1 .8-mil
needle then in use. The plan was to adopt a full microgroove system
after the old records were retired.''^' However, when conversion to
microgroove records occurred in Fiscal 1953, older records were not
retired, although they became eligible for rerecording if demand war-
ranted it. The previous year, the division had begun production of the
A model machine. Somewhat more expensive but with the potential of
better performance, it was considered a better value than previous
models. The bureau was planning to provide design rather than per-
formance specifications for the loudspeakers in the machines to be
produced in Fiscal 1952, since such specifications could incorporate
the results of its research. However, in Fiscal 1952, the division
became aware of deficiencies in the A model machines; after consid-
erable negotiation, the division accepted at reduced cost 7,500
machines which met reduced standards.
The division terminated its contract with the bureau as of June 30,
1952, because its estimated costs for the research proposed for Fiscal
1953 were prohibitive. In September 1953, AFB offered to have its
new Department of Technical Research and Development undertake
the work. The Comptroller General ruled in January 1953 that, since
The Library found the bureau's services "inadequate and uneconom-
ical," it could legally enter into contracts with nonprofit agencies
engaged in work for the blind without going through the process of
competitive bidding, on the same terms as for talking and braille
books. '^- By June 1953, the Law Library was preparing an appropri-
ate contract, and an assistant chief with a background in electronics
and sound reproduction was appointed to the division.
In the first year of its contract, AFB determined that 16% rpm was a
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feasible recording speed, but several technical problems had to be
solved: the recording level had to be halved and the machine
amplifiers had to be able to provide twice the gains of the amplifiers
then in use. Recording at half the speed would allow twice as much
material to be put on the same size disc. AFB also found that com-
pressed speech was possible. That is, recorded speech could be com-
pressed as much as 20 percent in order to allow "speed reading." An
average print reader may read at about 300 wpm and a proficient
braille reader at 100 wpm. Text was recorded at 175 wpm; com-
pressed speech would permit faster reading without pitch distortion.
But whether it would affect the literary quality of talking books was an
open question. Speech compression was not a high-priority matter,
and economic factors defeated every attempt by AFB to perfect it
during the fifties and sixties. '^^ Other research, ultimately fruitless,
involved investigation of two German techniques, recording on film
and on long-playing tape.
AFB studied earlier talking-book machines with an eye to improv-
ing new ones, resulting in a better angle of the tone arm and refine-
ments in the amplifier. AFB's recommendations were to keep the
machines as simple as possible, both mechanically and electrically, to
aim at presentable quality but not high fidelity with its greater cost, to
keep costs down by eliminating points of questionable value, and to
use only the highest quality components available and the sturdiest
construction possible. It studied commercial medium- and low-priced
machines to determine desirable features that could be incorporated
into talking-book machines and to take advantage of recent devel-
opments. As a result, it adopted a transformerless amplifier, for lower
costs and maintenance and better quality, and a ceramic pickup arm,
for better durability in hot and damp environments. Both had been
almost universally adopted by the industry. Improvements were in-
corporated into the model B machine, of which the division bought
7,800 between Fiscal 1954 and 1956, from a nonprofit manufacturer,
the Pennsylvania Association for the Blind, with the recommendation
that S models be removed from service. In Fiscal 1956, AFB was
working on a small, simple, lightweight machine; long-playing rec-
ords, less subject to wear and breakage; machines for areas without
electricity; and guidance in repairing machines.
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History of the Library of Congress Program
The division was also conducting research on braille production,
under a contract with APH, beginning in Fiscal 1954. The braille
printing techniques then in use were two decades old. The division's
goals were to improve the quality of braille printing and its acceptance
by blind readers and to reduce costs by applying principles, methods,
and materials used generally in the printing field. As a result of a
series of meetings held in Louisville in 1954, the division focused on
three projects: the physical formatting of braille, such matters as the
size of the braille characters, the width and height of the dots, and
margins; the use of compositor tapes used to produce print books for
the automatic operation of braille embossing machines; and braille
books in magazine format, that is, with paper covers and less expen-
sive paper. In Fiscal 1956, the division produced two experimental
paperback braille books, which could be embossed and distributed in a
few weeks as opposed to a few months for books of a more permanent
character; the experiment was continued the next year.
Thus, in the 1940s the division absorbed NLB and the Library of
Congress regional and with them the function of circulation; assumed
responsibility for the production and repair of talking-book machines
and with that the function of research and development; and doubled
its budget.
The Regional System
By 1946, the federal program had expanded each regional's collection
by almost 10,000 volumes of embossed books and nearly 2,500 con-
tainers of talking books. Readership had increased to 27,300 nation-
wide,'^^ but the number of regionals had not grown in a decade. In
193 1 , the libraries' problem had been a dearth of books to circulate;
fifteen years later many libraries found housing a burgeoning collec-
tion was a problem, and circulating it to patrons outside their funding
base an impossible burden.
Early in 1949, the division learned that the Carnegie Library in
Atlanta could no longer afford to serve readers in Florida and Ala-
bama; operating costs were too high and its funding base too small.
Believing that the states should assume responsibility for the cost of
distributing library materials for blind readers, the Librarian of Con-
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gress wrote the governors of those states, suggesting possible alterna-
tive arrangements. Florida chose to establish and support its own
regional, founded by the Florida Council for the Blind as of July 1,
1950, at Daytona Beach, to provide talking-book service to Florida
residents. The Atlanta regional sent duplicate copies of talking books
and the division made every effort to complete the new regional's
recorded collection to make it identical with those of the other
twenty-six libraries. Regional service for Georgia and, on a contract
basis, for Alabama, as well as braille service for Florida, was assumed
by the Georgia State Library, which leased the building used by the
Atlanta regional and kept its staff, giving them employment and re-
tirement rights and privileges comparable to those they had received
as municipal employees.
During Fiscal 1951 , the New Orleans Public Library notified
Louisiana and Mississippi that service to their residents would be
discontinued in ninety days unless compensation was provided.
Louisiana responded promptly and favorably, but it took the furor
created by actual suspension of service to Mississippi before that state
found the money needed . ^^^ And on May 27 , 1 95 1 , the twenty-eighth
regional was established at the State Library Commission in Nebraska
for that state's residents.
The division saw two possible solutions to the problem of many
regionals' growing financial distress: each noncontributing state could
establish its own regional or it could pay on a contractual basis for the
service provided its blind readers by another state or by in-state public
or institutional libraries. It was the division's position that "under
existing legislation the Federal Government" could make "no further
contribution toward fulfilling the purpose" of the books it provided
beyond attempting to see that service was continued through one
option or the other when a regional withdrew service. ^^^
By 195 1 , readership had increased to more than 40,000 and the
division had expanded each regional's collection by about 1 1 ,300
embossed volumes and 8,000 containers of talking books."" The
number of regional libraries had increased by only two in fifteen
years. The fact that circulation of recorded books was much greater
and much more involved than that of braille books exacerbated their
problems.
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History of the Library of Congress Program
In addition, an ' 'acute shortage of space . . . [was] almost uni-
versal.' ' One regional had three times the shelf space it had had in
193 1 , but it was in three different rooms. Two were remote from the
work center, equipped with ten-foot-high shelves, and on different
levels, requiring the use of stairs and ramps. The third contained a
workshop and the books were coated with dust. "Ordinary public
library facilities' ' were no longer feasible for library services to blind
readers. To support the great weight of the books, accommodate
equipment for moving them about, and provide loading facilities,
what was needed was a warehouse. And, even with "vigorous pro-
motion," much of the collection was not used. '^*
Conference on Library Services for the Blind
To discuss growing problems in the regionals and in the program as
a whole, in November 195 1 The Library convened the first conference
on library services for blind individuals. The 1 1 1 people who attended
represented every phase of the work — state agencies for the blind,
producers of talking books, producers of embossed books, volunteers
producing books, regional libraries, educational and rehabilitation
agencies, and technicians developing talking-book machines. '^^ As a
result of the conference's recommendations, an Advisory Committee,
composed of one representative of each of the seven types of agencies
involved, was established to advise The Librarian on "jurisdiction,
authority, coordination, etc."""
The implicit message of the conference with regard to the regionals
was clear: it was crucial that the division begin providing effective
support services in order to allow them to fight increased costs through
more efficient use of staff and space.
For example, the division had developed no systematic procedure
for helping the regionals weed their collections. The conference
passed resolutions that the division should establish a central depos-
itory for little-used materials and conduct regular surveys to identify
surplus books in order to relocate or destroy them. These ideas were
not new; the librarian of the Wayne County regional had mentioned
both in a paper delivered at the 1939 AAWB convention,'^' and no
doubt they had been suggested before that. Declaring that its "primary
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statutory responsibility" was "limited to the procurement of mate-
rials," the division nevertheless recognized an obligation to assist and
guide the regionals "principally in connection with the custody of
materials and specifically the amelioration of their space and fiscal
problems. "'^^ However, to deal with surplus books systematically
would impose a considerable burden on both the regionals and itself;
therefore, the division worked out a simplified procedure to offer
temporary relief. Having ascertained the magnitude of the problem
and the need for a central depository through a questionnaire sent each
regional on June 15, 1953. the division thought the benefits of weed-
ing collections might justify the trouble, although staff for "such extra
curricular activity" was a problem for all concerned.''*^
Regionals that wished to participate furnished two copies of a list of
surplus braille titles in their collections. The division then compiled a
master list — by January 1954, nine libraries had supplied lists of more
than 2,500 titles total — from which regionals could requisition desired
books. Only books surplus to all regionals and thus to the entire
program could be disposed of. After three weeks, each regional could
consider its unrequisitioned books as excess and announce them as
available for shipment to foreign destination in conformity with in-
structions from the American Foundation for the Overseas Blind or
dispose of unusable items as waste paper in the prescribed manner for
government property. The division incurred no expense for shipment.
The same method, it announced, would be adopted for the disposal of
surplus talking books. This procedure was continued to the advantage
of all concerned. For example, in Fiscal 1955, the American Founda-
tion for the Overseas Blind sent the program's surplus books to the
American Library in Paris, the Victoria Memorial School for the Blind
in Bombay, and the Aben-Ku Lighthouse for the Blind in Osaka,
Japan.
A central depository for little-used materials was another matter.
The division came out in favor of using one or more of the existing
regionals, shifting areas of service around somewhat, if a regional
with sufficient space could be found. Moon titles had been handled in
this way when demand fell off. But any regional providing such
national service would need financial support for additional staff —
perhaps requiring legislation in all the states. In any case, a new
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History of the Library of Congress Program
catalog would be required. However, in January 1953, the Advisory
Committee recommended that the Library of Congress study the pos-
sibility of becoming the central depository and report back. The divi-
sion's regional was already providing a national service for unique
braille items. On June 22, 1954, the ALA Committee on Work with
the Blind recommended six strategically located centers be designated
to provide interlibrary loan service on a reimbursement by nominal fee
basis. '""^ The issue remained undecided.
In the context of storage problems, an incomplete set of records
meant a book on the shelf, not in circulation. The conference's reso-
lution that the division establish better procedures for obtaining re-
placements had little effect. Typically, when enough requests for a
particular record had accumulated, the division forwarded them to the
appropriate studio. This method achieved certain economies, but in
the interim the wasted investment in the idle book was far greater than
the cost of ordering single replacements as needed. From 1949 to
1952, the division stocked extra copies of new talking-book titles for
use as replacements but found that the problem involved older titles
and therefore discontinued the practice. At the June 1954 meeting of
ALA, the librarians present discussed the issue and generally agreed
that because of the cost of re-pressing and the superior quality of
contemporary recording techniques it might be preferable to rerecord
older works rather than re-press from the original masters. '^^
The conference's resolution on central cataloging was more fruitful.
Although the division regional prepared its own catalog cards, the
division had never provided cards for all the regionals. In 1953, the
Processing Department of The Library began drafting rules for
cataloging books for the blind, and these, together with illustrative
printed cards, were distributed to the regionals for comment. Once the
rules were established and approved by both ALA and The Library
administration, cataloging began. In 1954, the first cards for books in
production were distributed free to regionals. Copy was prepared by
the division and edited by the Descriptive Cataloging Division. The
first year's experience with centralized cataloging — 80,000 cards in
dictionary sets — was discussed at the ALA conference in July 1955.
While recommending some deletions and additions, the regional li-
brarians emphasized how much time and money the project saved
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them.'^'' By 1956, brief annotations had been added to the cards at
their request.
Pointing out that a "union catalog of all materials for the blind"
would save considerable staff time, the conference issued a resolution
that the division publish and distribute one. The last union catalog of
handcopied books had been compiled by the Braille Transcribing Ser-
vice in 1934. Early in 1956, the division published a new catalog, in a
1,000-copy edition, containing some 15,000 titles reported in libraries
across the country. Used in conjunction with the division's 1948
cumulative catalog of press-braille books and its 1954 cumulative
supplement, the union catalog constituted the requested reference tool
for regional librarians. The division began accumulating cards for a
supplement and for a bibliography of free braille and recorded reli-
gious materials distributed to regionals by religious organizations and
individuals.
Similarly, the need for an operations manual had been recognized
by librarians for some time. Their primary opportunity to exchange
information about routines was at the annual ALA meeting. But, since
the discussion was reported only briefly, only those librarians who
attended benefited. In 1938, the ALA conference had adopted the
tentative outline for a handbook on routines, written by the Committee
on Work with the Blind. The book was to be based on an extensive
survey and evaluation of the various techniques and routines actually
in use.'"''' It was never published, however, because of World War II.
In response to a conference resolution, the division committed itself to
produce such a manual in order to improve operations and the uni-
formity of services. With the draft of a manual for the division re-
gional as a basis, the manual would be a "cooperative venture draw-
ing upon the experience and knowledge of individuals in the field."'"'*'
The director of the division visited twenty of the twenty-eight re-
gionals in Fiscal 1953 before circulating a draft for comment.'"'® In
July 1955, a tentative version of the manual was discussed at the ALA
conference.'^"
The librarians at the 195 1 conference recognized "the advantages
of Federal aid in insuring or contributing to uniformity of standards
and the value of uniform standards for" figuring "costs and a more
effective allocation of funds." The operations manual, for example,
126
History of the Library of Congress Program
would be useful in justifying budget needs for state agencies and
would offer convincing proof that a particular regional was substand-
ard in staffing or space. They and the others at the conference also
recognized the need for cooperation and better communication among
all concerned, both agencies within the program and volunteer groups
supplementing the program.'^' The conference recommended future
conferences on library services for blind readers. The division agreed
to sponsor such conferences but felt no need to do so annually, sug-
gesting other agencies might alternate with it as sponsor. It had al-
ready planned a conference for volunteers in 1952 and, as another
possibility, suggested a national conference with a general agenda
every third or fifth year and national conferences with special agendas
in the intervening years. A third possibility it suggested was general
national conferences on library services every three to five years with
regional conferences in intervening years. '^^ In the meantime, the
division increased its visits to the regionals and producers and its
attendance at conferences of organizations working on behalf of blind
people.
The conference also passed resolutions relative to traditional func-
tions the division saw as its primary responsibility: selection of titles
and equipment.
Regional librarians wanted improved book selection. In preparation
for the conference, the division had authorized a study of its selection
policy by Blanche P. McCrum. In addressing the conference, she
pointed out the inherent difficulties in the existing situation: the im-
possibility of creating an adequate collection compared to that avail-
able to sighted people; the long production time, caused in part by the
selection process itself; and inadequate staffing at the division (less
than 7 percent of its annual budget went for personnel, a ceiling
imposed by Congress). She espoused a "'bill of library rights" for
blind readers, who read for the same reasons sighted people read, but
she noted that blind readers have special requirements. Information
about actual and potential patrons was lacking. She found marked
differences of opinion in her study of 4, 100 readers and librarians
about what readers wanted. These reflected the tensions under which
the selection officer had to work. Many patrons objected to any book
which did not satisfy them, including those with "realistic" writing;
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others wanted contemporary literature, which tended to contain just
that sort of writing. Perhaps two-thirds of the blind population were
over sixty years of age; the prevailing opinion was that they read for
diversion and that selection should be in their interests. Others wanted
basic background materials in every subject field for the inquiring
mind. She noted a lack of material for young newly blind people with
economic responsibilities and for newly blind people who needed
high-interest, low-vocabulary braille books. Despite this diversity of
opinion, most readers approved of the collection and the selections
being made. She proposed stimulating research on blind readers'
reading interests, establishing a readers' advisory service in the divi-
sion, and hiring a library field representative to improve use of exist-
ing stock and the bonds between the regionals and the division. '^^
The Advisory Committee recommended that regional librarians be
allowed to select only the titles they wanted, whereas the practice was
to distribute a standard number of titles to the regionals automatically.
It approved the division's policy of not eliminating books with possi-
bly offensive language provided the passages did not constitute por-
nography, obscenity, or constant or immoderate profanity and of not
bowdlerizing texts once they were selected. It also suggested using an
identifying symbol for books some readers might find offensive.
On June 10, 1954, the division issued a policy statement on book
selection. It declared that the tastes of blind readers were substantially
the same as those of sighted readers and that one of the program's
objectives was to provide the same variety of reading materials the
latter enjoyed. Because of severe limitations on the number of books
that could be selected, the statement stressed choosing "books of high
quality from the points of view of readability, interest, competence of
treatment and quality of writing," books of not "merely ephemeral
interest," and building "a balanced collection" to "satisfy a wide
diversity of reader interest," providing informative works but allow-
ing for the preponderant preference for fiction. Older enduring titles
were to be selected concurrently with new titles. The statement speci-
fically mentioned including publications on current political affairs
and attempting to provide opposing sides of issues, securing for
simultaneous transcription books of equal caliber, if available, to ac-
complish this goal. Religious works of an informational and inspira-
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History of the Library of Congress Program
tional nature were to be included but not those that were doctrinal or
sectarian.'^'*
The conference also urged the division to improve arrangements for
talking-book machine repair and to standardize needles, preferably in
conformity with commercial practices. Repair of talking-book
machines had been handled by commercial firms since 1947. In Fiscal
1952, the division established new procedures, and, in the next fiscal
year, 75 percent more units were repaired at a lower per-unit cost.
Machines in use in the early 1950s required different needles: all the
more recent models could use a semipermanent needle good for play-
ing about 200 records, while the older AFB machines required ordi-
nary steel needles which had to be changed after several playings.
Thus the regional library had to keep track of which machine models
its patrons had in order to supply the right needles. When commercial
long-playing records and phonographs became available after the war,
they were not compatible with the program's equipment. Until com-
mercial needles were standardized in a size that would not damage
talking books, there was little to be done. The situation, in fact, got
worse before it got better: in Fiscal 1957, three different types of
needles were required for different talking-book machine models, and
in Fiscal 1958, four different types.
The foregoing suggests some ways in which the division had not
taken into consideration the impact of technical change on the librar-
ies' economic and physical problems — a matter of considerable con-
cern to the conference. The entire talking-book program appears to
have been initiated without such consideration, and the attitude con-
tinued with subsequent changes, such as those which resulted in new
machines that could not play old records satisfactorily. The use of
performance specifications exacerbated the problem by permitting
various designs in successive models of talking-book machines so
long as each design met the required performance standards. In con-
trast, by using design specifications, the division could assure more
compatible successive models.
Finally, the conference issued resolutions on the need for a strong
Division for the Blind within the Library of Congress structure, pref-
erably one with "strengthened and improved facilities," and the need
for further study on the complex problem of the regionals" financial
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burdens. On the latter point, the Advisory Committee noted two years
later, in 1953, that various regionals had on their own initiative devel-
oped interstate or state-municipal agreements on per-capita reim-
bursement for service, an effort which it said the Librarian of Con-
gress might foster by encouraging the states involved to accept finan-
cial responsibility. By 1953, several ways to restructure the regional
system had been suggested, including fewer, larger libraries serving
expanded areas. Such a system could be better coordinated, with
improved uniformity of operations and standards through central di-
rection; however, few regionals could extend their areas of service.
On the other hand, establishing a regional in each state would provide
closer liaison between regionals and state commissions, simplify
financing within states, and stimulate interest in the service on a state
basis, but it would also increase procurement costs. The Advisory
Committee concluded it would be wasteful to establish a regional in
each state; and, before considering any change in the regional system,
it wanted corrective sUidies made of storage space, state payment for
service in existing regionals, new technological developments, proper
processing of material, and developing federal cataloging and stand-
ard practices.
While the division considered the 1951 conference an important
first step in correcting "an apparent lack of liaison and understanding
relating to the interdependent yet separable functions involved in the
varying aspects of the program as a whole," *^^ the meeting did not
lead to significant improvements. In fact, it appears that little was
done until the House Appropriations Committee suggested in 1953
that consideration be given to transferring the program to the Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. Discussion with HEW fol-
lowed, but Dr. Luther Evans resigned as Librarian of Congress in July
1953 to become Director-General of UNESCO, and the question was
tabled until the new Librarian, L. Quincy Mumford, was appointed.
His recommendation on April 21 , 1955, to the Joint Committee on the
Library was that the books for the blind program remain at The Li-
brary, which had "the techniques, the facilities, and long-standing
effective relationships with the agencies" involved to administer what
was "essentially a library program." The committee accepted his
recommendation.'^^ •
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History of the Library of Congress Program
The St. John Study
Convinced that "the burden of storage and distribution" was a
grave problem" and that a solution to the regional system's inequita-
ble financing could prove controversial, AFB proposed in 1955 a
national study whose primary purpose was "assess[ing] the adminis-
trative and professional effectiveness" of the regionals and the divi-
sion. The study, fully supported by the Library of Congress, would be
composed of three surveys — of the twenty-eight regionals, of the
fifty-five agencies and organizations distributing talking-book
machines, and of the library needs of the blind population — and the
development of "an authoritative statement of principles and stand-
ards" to improve "the professional level of library services for blind
persons. "'^^ AFB persuaded Francis R. St. John, chief librarian of the
Brooklyn Public Library, to direct the surveys of regionals and
machine-distributing agencies. The third survey and the standards
would come later. '^®
St. John and the ten other prominent librarians comprising the sur-
vey committee, among them, visited every regional except Hawaii to
"permit value judgments." A committee consisting of educators, the
executive secretary of ALA, the head of the division, network librar-
ians, and others served as advisors. Both committees were involved in
developing the survey questionnaires, reviewing the data obtained
from interviews and questionnaires, discussing a draft report, and
reaching agreement on final recommendations. St. John wrote the
published report. '^^
In essence, St. John developed four major interlocking recommen-
dations touching federal, state, and professional responsibilities: pro-
fessionalization of the regionals, full financial responsibility of each
state for library services to its own residents, stronger leadership by
the division, and the priority of service to readers. The last was stated
explicitly in his "General Recommendations" but not discussed
separately in his report; it was, after all, the premise upon which the
entire program was or should have been based, in his view, and
inherent in every aspect of his study.
Professionalism in the Regionals. In 1956, the regionals were still
for the most part understaffed, underfinanced, and badly housed. Be-
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cause theirs was largely a mail-order circulation conducted by phone
and correspondence, regionals were often located in out-of-the-way
areas and needed to keep more circulation records than libraries serv-
ing sighted readers. St. John compared the work to operating a reserve
book system in a public library.'^" The basic records were a reader's
file for each patron, including the books requested and those sent,
general reading preferences, mailing labels, and any notices to dis-
continue service temporarily; a book card file, usually divided into
books on the shelf and those in use; a card catalog; a shelf list; and
sometimes an accession file. Most libraries handled braille and
talking-book circulation separately and needed two sets of these rec-
ords. Additional braille files were required in libraries with blind staff
members. This multiplicity of records still showed little uniformity of
method from library to library.'®'
The desperate need for efficient procedures can be inferred from the
routine required. Staff separated returned braille and talking books,
checked to see that all the elements were present, in the right order,
and in good condition, and removed the address label. The book
charge cards were removed and filed in the "books in" file to indicate
that the titles were available for circulation. The address label
triggered the pulling of the reader's file for book selection. Titles
requested by the patron were selected from the "books in" file and the
book cards and address label were sent to stack assistants, who took
the volumes from the shelf and prepared them for mailing. The titles
were dated on the reader's request list, which was then returned to the
reader's file.'®-
Poor physical conditions often necessitated excessive lifting and
carrying of heavy, bulky braille books and twelve-inch records.
St. John estimated that each staff member "handled an average of
thirty-five tons [of materials] during the year. " '®^ Although condi-
tions had actually improved since the 195 1 conference, eleven re-
gionals were judged poor in this area. Conditions in some were "un-
believable: crowded shelves, books piled on top of seven or eight foot
high shelving, on floors and on tables. In some cases whole sections
had to be shifted out of the way as books were circulated or returned. ' '
And in the shipping area of many regionals, volumes were "handled
unnecessarily many times just to make room to work."'®^ In 1957,
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History of the Library of Congress Program
one regional was in "a low-ceilinged basement room that looked as
though it might collapse at any moment. Everywhere . . . shelves
heaped with black boxes. It was so crowded you could hardly walk — a
regular rabbit warren. This had formerly been a furnace room; the old
furance was still there, in fact, and so were some of the old ashes. " '^^
Among those regionals considered to have adequate to excellent space
and stack arrangements was one with fifteen-foot-high shelves for the
braille collection. '®®
St. John recommended labor-saving devices and methods —
appropriate shelving, adequate elevators (no ramps or steps), aisles
wide enough for trucks, efficient shipping areas, simplified record-
keeping, and a fixed-location system of shelving materials, since the
classification number system required "constant shifting" to make
room for new volumes to be put "in their proper classified position on
already overcrowded shelves. ' ' "*' Collections also needed to be
weeded. Regionals had retained little-used materials because of lack
of staff time to cull them, complex Library of Congress regulations on
disposal of federal property, the lack of a central depository for them,
and the understandable but self-defeating desire to keep materials
some reader might need some day. St. John recommended that the
Library of Congress simplify its regulations on disposal and eliminate
the rarely productive step of asking regionals if they wanted any books
on another regional's surplus list."'** To overcome the isolation of the
professional staff from their parent organizations and their peers, due
to the general warehouse nature of the regionals, St. John suggested
state-wide meetings of librarians to promote better understanding of
library services for blind individuals.'®®
The average head librarian in the regionals was a sighted woman
with a library science degree and ten years' experience in library
services for blind readers. The average staff member was sighted,
paid, and possessed of a high school education. Only 17 of the total
201 .staff members had degrees from library schools and six regionals
had no one with a college degree on their staffs. Very few regionals
had volunteer staff members. Of the 18 blind staff members, 7 worked
in the division regional. In comparison, public librarians in most states
were required or being required to have master's degrees in library
science for entry-level positions. St. John recommended that each
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That All May Read
regional employ at least one — more in larger libraries — fully qual-
ified, trained librarian and that professional librarians have sole re-
sponsibility for book selection for patrons.'^"
Twenty-eight percent of the total paid staff positions in the re-
gionals were part-time. Assuming that to mean half-time, St. John
estimated that each full-time staff member was responsible for an
average annual circulation load of 7,950 volumes; the actual circula-
tion load varied from just under 3,000 to just over 15,000 volumes."''
According to St. John's figures and recommendations, about half the
regionals were understaffed. A total of twenty-eight additional full-
time staff, an increase of about 14 percent, would have been required
to bring the regionals up to the standards he proposed: a minimum of
one staff member per 300 readers, with additional clerical and page
help when the circulation per staff member rose above 9,000. On
these terms, one regional would have had to triple its staff.'"- Because
of the shortage of personnel, despite their dedication, the staff of
many regionals had to slight, defer, or eliminate such duties as weed-
ing collections, checking the condition of returned books and
promptly recirculating them, preparing reading lists and promotional
materials about the library, and observing the division's regulations on
loan periods and overdue books.'"
Financial Responsibilities of States. Improving staffing and physi-
cal conditions in the regionals required better funding. St. John pro-
duced solid data on the problem of inequitable financing. Of the
thirteen regionals in public libraries, nine received no compensation
from any state, not even their own, and only one — a county library —
served only the area from which it received tax support. Yet these
thirteen libraries accounted for 53 percent of the total annual circula-
tion. Of the six state libraries, three limited service to readers in their
own states, and only one of the other three was repaid for its out-of-
state service. Of the five nonlibrary state-supported institutions serv-
ing as regionals, two restricted service to their own states and only one
of the other three was reimbursed for service to another state. Of the
two private organizations serving as regionals, one received no sup-
port from either of the states it served, and the other received about
half of its annual budget from a flat fee for each resident of four states
who used its services during the year. The one territorial library re-
134
History of the Library of Congress Program
gional was fully supported by the tax area receiving its services. And,
since consolidation in 1946, the Library of Congress regional served
Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and the District of Columbia, none
of which contributed to it financially. The general appropriation for
books for blind readers authorized by Congress for the national pro-
gram paid for this service except for three positions and the cost of
housing, which came from the general Library of Congress budget. '^^
Nearly half of the total cost of personnel , one of the two most signifi-
cant budget items determining the funds available for promoting and
coordinating the national program, was attributed to the regional. In
sum, about half the states made no contribution to the library service
their blind residents received.''^
St. John was adamant about relieving regionals of this unfair finan-
cial burden, which had existed since before the inception of the pro-
gram in 193 1 but was greatly exacerbated by the program's very
success. He insisted that each state accept full financial responsibility
for all aspects of direct library service to its blind residents, including
machine distribution. Although he noted that people living near re-
gionals tended to use them more heavily, he recommended that states
with fewer than 1 ,000 blind residents contract with regionals in
neighboring states to provide service because of the impracticality of
maintaining a separate library for a small population. He also sug-
gested that regionals should come under state library extension de-
partments, where they could benefit from the staff's professional skills
and experience and where integration with the state's public library
system could be achieved.'"'' As for the regional operated by the
division, even before St. John's report was published, the Library of
Congress indicated that it would transfer responsibility to the four
states and the District of Columbia as soon as possible. In Fiscal 1959,
regionals providing talking-book service were established at
Richmond for Virginia and Maryland and at Raleigh for North
Carolina. The latter extended service to South Carolina in Fiscal 1961
by contractual arrangement. The division continued for some time to
serve the District of Columbia and to provide braille service to Mary-
land, Virginia, and the Carolinas.
National Leadership. Machine distributing agencies also were not
functioning efficiently. They typically failed to provide regionals with
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That All May Read
information about new readers — their interests, education, reading
abilities, ages — which would help librarians select books for them
when necessary. In addition, agencies sent blind people print instruc-
tions on how to use machines.'"'
The system also had distribution and repair problems. The division
had developed no way to determine either local or total national need;
it merely sent agencies the number of machines requested if they were
available. At the time of the survey, the total number of excess
machines in various agencies was 606, and the total number of per-
sons waiting for machines was 759 — not too bad a fit if the machines
were where the patrons were. But twenty-eight agencies reported no
machines available and 568 readers waiting; nineteen agencies had
from 3 to 150 machines available — six each had more than 30 — and
136 readers on waiting lists. Detailed annual machine distribution
reports to the division were not tabulated promptly and were used
more as an inventory report than for allocation control.'^*
Moreover, although the division's staff said that all the old
machines had been recalled and the tone arms and needles replaced to
fit them for the new records, when St. John analyzed the report of one
center, he found that half of the machines had been in use five years or
more without being exchanged or returned for major repairs, 9 percent
had been assigned at least ten years before, and 5 percent had been in
use fifteen years or more. Only two-thirds of the distributing agencies
reported that they supplied readers with replacement machines when
their original machines were being repaired. Finally, because repairs
at the federal centers took an inordinately long time — one or two
months — the distributing agencies, quite against regulations, had
many repairs made locally, often in one or two days, although many
of the repairmen were not adequately trained.'"^
St. John recommended that the division assign machine distribution
to the regionals and permit local minor repairs under regulations,
leaving major repairs and the decision to scrap and cannibalize
machines up to the central repair agency. He also proposed personal
instruction in using a machine when it was delivered; a central per-
petual inventory system so the division could, in an accurate and
timely way, control the allocation of machines; closer checks on
machine use and condition, so that obsolete machines could be re-
136
History of the Library of Congress Program
placed before records were seriously damaged; and determination of
the expected life of machines and use of follow-up letters or visits at
the end of that period.'^"
Pointing out that the Pratt-Smoot Act gave the Library of Congress
authority to set standards and issue regulations, St. John urged the
division to establish and enforce specific standards for performance
and operations. During his study, the division had suspended work on
the manual of operations the 195 1 conference had requested. He rec-
ommended publication as soon as possible but with an important
modification: instead of merely describing the various practices in
use, the manual should make specific recommendations and cover
more ground. Most regionals, he said, would welcome "advice, sug-
gestions and direction" from The Library. In addition, The Library
should set minimum standards for physical plants and consider re-
locating regional service if libraries operating in "deplorable quar-
ters" could not remedy conditions within a reasonable period. The
Library's argument that it could not coordinate the regionals' work
was fallacious; it could, and without threatening their autonomy. In-
deed, he recommended that the division set standards for everything
from loan periods to repairs.'*'
St. John repeatedly stressed the need for improved communication
— among the regionals, between regionals and the division, and be-
tween regionals and the machine-distributing agencies. In addition to
recommending that The Library sponsor "an annual conference of
volunteers and professionals working to provide books and library
service," he suggested that the division regularly publish bulletins for
regional librarians, secure adequate stenographic help for correspond-
ence, and — noting that the division made decisions without first-hand
knowledge of conditions in the field — develop a field service with
adequate travel funds for its staff and for key division personnel to
visit the regionals regularly.'*^
St. John's snjdy included the division's internal work as well. He
deplored the lack of compatibility between old machines and new
records and the division's "fascination" with "trying to perfect" the
talking-book machine; it had produced eighteen different models in
twenty-one years. Echoing the 1951 conference's recommendation to
consider the implications of future technological change for the li-
137
That All May Read
braries, he strongly recommended that changes in equipment be
"complete," apparently envisioning the release of new media and
books which would supersede old ones. St. John noted that a "con-
stant preoccupation with technical advances" was a two-edged sword
which could improve or impede library service to the individual
reader. He nevertheless endorsed the division's research and devel-
opment program, suggesting that as much as 10 percent of the budget
be devoted to such work coordinated in a single long-term plan, with
emphasis on reducing the bulk and cost of books so that more titles
could be produced for the same amount of money. He approved of the
division's research on tape systems and 16y3-rpm talking books. '^^
Updating McCrum's study, by comparing the division's catalogs to
published booklists, he found the division's selections of "high stand-
ard" with "good variety" in such categories as fiction, literary clas-
sics, biography, and history. He recommended meeting the vocational
and professional needs of the blind reader, using the central depository
and possibly volunteers for limited editions; reviewing policy on
westerns, mysteries, and romances, with a view toward reducing their
number; and providing more scientific, technical, language, and ref-
erence materials. Recognizing that the last imposed serious production
and distribution problems, he suggested more phone reference service
from state agencies and public libraries. And he urged improving
routines — seven committees were involved in the selection
process — so as to make possible the more timely production of topical
books; allowing regionals to specify the number of extra copies they
wanted of each new title after the final decision was made on produc-
tion and format rather than before; and conducting a study of the
reading tastes of the blind population, both users and nonusers, to test
the assumption that they were the same as sighted readers'. He com-
mended the division on Braille Book Review and Talking Book Top-
ics, suggesting only that older titles sometimes be included and that
copies of these two "influential publications" be sent to public li-
braries to assist them in their readers' advisory service to blind pa-
trons. He also approved a concept far removed from Dr. Putnam's
idea of a permanent library: expendable books, that is, relatively
inexpensive paperback braille editions of ephemeral titles to be dis-
posed of after their initial popularity waned, introduced experimen-
138
History of the Library of Congress Program
tally by the division in Fiscal 1956. He hoped for a parallel develop-
ment in talking books. '*■*
One collection St. John found totally inadequate was the children's
collection. On July 3, 1952, the Pratt-Smoot Act had been amended
by striking the word adult. '*^ Congress had provided no instructions
or restrictions — and no additional funds — for a children's collection.
Despite existing problems, the 195 1 conference had endorsed ex-
tending service to children, although the bill it had supported in-
creased the division's appropriation accordingly. The tendency to en-
courage blind children to attend regular schools was growing and
those who attended residential schools were home, away from their
libraries, all summer. The regionals had been getting requests for
children's books and could offer very little suitable material.'*^ In
order to supplement rather than duplicate the work of APH, the divi-
sion, with the Advisory Committee's concurrence, had estabhshed the
policy of providing only recreational and collateral reading materials
for school-age children, of lending talking-book machines and re-
corded titles only to children five years of age or older (with an adult
accepting responsibility), and of recording materials beginning with
the older age groups in order to take advantage of existing suitable
adult books in building a collection for children, which would recog-
nize age or grade levels.
Although the Advisory Committee had recommended appointing a
specialist in children's literature to handle selection, the division had
"decided to take advantageof a generous offer of assistance" from
ALA's Division of Libraries for Children and Young People. A com-
mittee consisting of members of that group selected books from lists
compiled by the editorial staff in children's books of ALA's Book-
list. '^^ The first books — thirty-five recorded titles from APH's stock
of collateral reading, including Little Women, Little Men, and The
Yearling — were released in Fiscal 1953. Although funds for the year
in which the legislation was enacted were already obligated, the divi-
sion somehow found money to start the collection. The following
year, 22 percent of the recorded titles and 20 percent of the braille
titles the division ordered were for children; in Fiscal 1955, 25 percent
and 46 percent; in Fiscal 1956, 18 percent and 38 percent. At the
expense of the adult collection, a total of only 152 juvenile titles — 72
139
That All May Read
braille and 80 recorded — were available in the regionals for an esti-
mated population of 20,000 blind children of school age across the
country almost three years after the act was amended.
St. John took the position that extending service to children could
not be effective until enough titles were available in each regional. He
pointed out that selection by the same staff member who handled adult
titles, on the basis of advice from the ALA committee, had worked
satisfactorily in only one year, when the committee chairperson was
particularly interested in the project. He recommended, as had the
Advisory Committee, that the division appoint a children's specialist.
He charged The Library with ensuring the success of the program for
children and suggested that The Library sponsor a national conference
of teachers and regional librarians to answer such questions as: what
kind of library service do children need? what type of books best
served the need? what would be needed in addition to book service?
and how can libraries located hundreds of miles from schools best
serve both teachers and children?"^*^ He insisted that Congress provide
more funds specifically earmarked for the children's collection.*'*''
St. John did not stop there. He recommended that Congress appro-
priate more money for the division for a larger collection, a minimum
of 1 ,000 titles produced annually; enough talking-book machines so
that every blind person who wanted one could have it; a central de-
pository; and necessary improvements in communication in the re-
gional system, including three new field workers to advise regional
librarians or act as liaison between the regionals and the division or
among regionals; regular visits to regionals by the field workers and
occasional visits by key division personnel; and an annual conference
on library service for blind people. He also proposed a grants-in-aid
program to improve library service to the blind reader at the state
level. !"«
Further, noting that the Library of Congress was the "key to the
whole system" of library service for blind people,'^' he asserted that
there had been "indications dating back to the beginning of the pro-
gram, that this special service has been considered as unusual and not
an integral part of the overall operation," possibly because "the kind
of service required ... is foreign to the reference and research func-
tion" of "this great library. "'^^ Indeed, the service requires "dif-
140
History of the Library of Congress Program
ferent techniques, different skills, in fact, a different philosophy than
that required for its reference and research service. " '"'' He recom-
mended that, "if, for any reason, it were found that the Library of
Congress in the future is unable or unwilling to support enthusiasti-
cally an active program of library service for the blind, consideration
... be given to the establishment of a national agency for the
blind. "194
The significance and impact of St. John's report can hardly be
exaggerated. It laid out in detail the problems, both those inherent in
library services for blind individuals and those resulting from deci-
sions taken by organizations providing it; it proposed solutions; and it
assigned responsibility for acting upon them in a blueprint for the
future. The regionals recognized the need for central guidance and the
division was ready to supply it; for years afterwards, a copy of the
study was on the desk of every supervisor. The attitude of the Library
of Congress had changed from seeing itself as merely a "convenient
administrative agency" to handle the program in the thirties, in the
words of a later Librarian, to one of accepting "responsibility for real
leadership" in the forties, '^^ to one of full commitment by the mid-
fifties. And Congress demonstrated its support for the "expansion and
development of a balanced program" with "constantly expanding
needs" '^^ by removing the ceiling on appropriations in 1957'^'' to
allow future budget planning to reflect national requirements more
adequately than was possible under the limitation. The Fiscal 1958
appropriation had already been passed, but on March 28, 1958, an act
of Congress appropriating an additional $75,000 for immediate use in
acquiring materials was approved. '9** The Fiscal 1959 appropriation
was 51,355,000; six years later it was $2,446,000, an increase of 80
percent. '^9
Progress, 1956-1965
The Network
The division promptly began addressing the problems of inequitable
funding and poor housing for the regionals. The two states that took
over talking-book service for their residents from the division-
al
That All May Read
Virginia and North Carolina — and a full-service regional in Iowa
brought the total number of network libraries to thirty-one in Fiscal
1960. By the end of the fiscal year, members of the division staff had
visited and evaluated all but one of the regionals. By July 1961,
eleven regionals were relocated in better quarters, including one
building designed specifically for library services for blind readers. A
number of regi jnals were moved to or established in state libraries. By
Fiscal 1964, it had become obvious that regionals could not operate
with maximum effectiveness if they served more than one densely
populated state. The Library began to negotiate with various states
about establishing new libraries and another regional was opened in
1965.
Regional collections were made more efficient. In 1959, well over
half of the shelf space in the libraries was taken up by braille mate-
rials, which were used by less than 20 percent of the readers. To deal
with this problem, the division consolidated the braille collections and
services of some neighboring regionals with few braille readers. By
1964, six libraries offered only talking-book service. To make the
regional collections truly working collections, the division requested
from librarians in Fiscal 1958 more realistic estimates of the number
of copies of new talking books they needed, and it collected surplus
braille and older talking-book titles and distributed them to regionals
that wanted them, often one of the newer libraries, but a large number
of books were disposed of through appropriate channels. In Fiscal
1962, librarians were authorized to discard talking books produced
before 1955 if they wished; three years later, most of these books were
off the shelves. The division continued to encourage weeding obsolete
titles and by Fiscal 1965 librarians were authorized to discard talking
books five to ten years old, which were wearing out, and recorded
magazines six months old.
By Fiscal 1962, the division was encouraging small deposit collec-
tions in cities without regionals or in areas with many potential pa-
trons, such as rehabilitation centers. The division itself established a
deposit collection in nearby Montgomery County, Maryland, to make
books more accessible by putting them in residential areas and to
encourage the integration of blind and sighted children. The books
could be borrowed through any of the twelve branches of the public
142
History of the Library of Congress Program
library system. Additional deposit collections were later placed in
other counties adjacent to the District of Columbia.
The division regional was in a better position to serve as a labora-
tory in other respects as well, once it was relieved of talking-book
service to South Carolina and Maryland by the North Carolina and
Virginia regionals. Its collection was weeded, modernized, and
strengthened and better practices were initiated: visible files of book
slips and readers cards, more effective control of circulation and over-
due books — all features of the better network libraries — and a subject
catalog. The goal was to make the regional demonstrate the effective-
ness of high standards and efficient operation. In addition, it still
functioned as a national resource for unique volunteer-produced titles.
To promote communication within the network. The Library spon-
sored a three-day conference for regional librarians in November
1960, at which a free and full discussion of regional and division
activities took place, and one in May 1963, at which an operations
manual for librarians was discussed and accepted as a basis for pro-
viding uniform services throughout the country. At a third conference,
held in October 1965 in Louisville, the librarians were able to gain
some insights into the techniques of book production in braille,
large-print, disc, and magnetic-tape formats at APH and the division
reported on technical developments in progress — aural indexing on
records, expendable records, and books on cassettes. In addition, the
division also ran special meetings or workshops at annual conventions
of ALA and of the American Association of Workers for the Blind, an
effective way to accomplish a good deal of network business at rela-
tively little expense.
Further, the division began issuing a newletter in January 1958 as a
means of sharing news from the regionals and about the division's
activities and policies. For several years the publication was compiled
by regional librarians serving as guest editors. And in 1959, the divi-
sion began issuing "circular letters" to the network on such subjects
as management, technical matters, braille, and reference work. Be-
ginning in mid- 1965, a newsletter was issued to advise volunteers
involved in the production of books and music and in other activities
or issues relating to their work.
Other support services provided regionals included prompt re-
143
That All May Read
placement of damaged records, standardized circulation book cards,
and annotated catalog cards. Because more titles and copies were
distributed to each network library, the emphasis fell on simplifying
procedures. For example, in Fiscal 1963, in addition to classification
numbers, the division began to use title accession numbering, which
facilitated fixed-location shelving in the network libraries.
Professionalization of the service was aided by publication of
standards of service in 1961 and 1966. The first standards were a
concise statement prepared in cooperation with the ALA Round Table
on Library Service to the Blind and edited and distributed by the
division.-™ They defined the service as essentially a public library
service for blind readers and a reference service for anyone interested
in blindness and the services available to blind people. The standards
called for placement of regionals in a traditional library, rather than a
nonlibrary setting; for materials to be processed, organized, and ser-
viced through the network librarian, rather than the parent library; and
for adequate space for the bulky reading materials involved. Profes-
sional and personal qualifications for librarians were specified and
services to be provided by each library were listed: preparing and
distributing reading lists and planning reading programs for patrons'
informal self-education; recommending appropriate collateral reading
for patrons undertaking formal education; providing reference service;
supporting and participating in the educational, cultural, and recre-
ational activities of groups and organizations of blind persons; rec-
ommending books of established importance to encourage construc-
tive use of leisure time; and supplementing the collections provided by
the division through purchase, gifts, loans, or other means.
Adopted by ALA and published in 1966, the first extensive set of
standards for library service for the blind reader was written by a
committee of twelve, including the chief of the division, network
librarians, and representatives of APH and volunteers. Part of a thor-
ough examination of seven types of service programs for blind people,
the work was prepared under the auspices of an autonomous body, the
Commission on Standards and Accreditation of Services for the Blind
(COMSTAC). -•" The standards defined three levels of responsibility
— federal, state, and community. Among the basic principles enun-
ciated was the need for an interlocking network consisting not only of
144
History of the Library of Congress Program
the Library of Congress and the regional and subregional libraries but
also all other libraries, even the smallest public library branch or
school library, to provide appropriate services to the low-density blind
population. The standards pointed out that blind readers' needs are the
same as sighted persons and that library services provided them have
the same basic principles and objectives.
Each state was enjoined to maintain a library for its blind residents
if they numbered more than 1 ,000 and to cooperate with other states in
providing services if they did not. The standards set professional
qualifications for staffs of these libraries and required them to be of
equal rank with other library departments within the parent library.
Standards for community libraries required including blind people
in library activities, such as story hours and discussion groups, and
maintaining awareness of and offering guidance in the use of available
resources, such as the division's catalogs of books in all formats for
blind people of all ages.
Talking-book machine repairs were decentralized. In Fiscal 1959,
the division contracted for major repairs of older machines to be made
by RCA Service Company, which had twenty-six branches across the
country. New machines were repaired under warranty by Sears service
branches located in nearly every city with a machine-lending agency.
And almost every machine-lending agency entered into agreement
with the Library of Congress to make minor repairs, such as replacing
fuses, defective tubes, and other parts; they repaired almost 4,800
machines at an average cost of $2.25 in Fiscal 1959. The division
produced two technical manuals — unprecedented in the program — in
Fiscal 1960 and brailled one of them the following year. Even so,
machine-lending agency personnel lacked the technical expertise to
make the system work. The divisioii turned to the Telephone Pioneers
of America, a volunteer group composed of active or retired em-
ployees of the telephone industry who had a minimum of twenty-one
years (now eighteen) of service. A pilot study was begun in Fiscal
1960, using a chapter in the Washington metropolitan area and
another in a rural section of Virginia. The results were so good that
even before the study was completed, the division asked that service
be extended to other areas. In Fiscal 1961 no machines were repaired
by commercial firms, and within two years Telephone Pioneers were
145
That All May Read
repairing talking-book machines in every state except Alaska — better,
faster, and at an average cost of only $0.66. In 1964 they repaired
almost 12,000 machines nationwide. With the division supplying
parts and the Telephone Pioneers labor, further economies were
achieved through centralized purchase of vacuum tubes.
Equipment
The trouble over model A machines and with the National Bureau
of Standards in Fiscal 1 952 had precluded the production of talking-
book machines in Fiscal 1953 and an average of only 3,900 machines
had been manufactured annually in the next two years. The average
rose to almost 8,750 for the next five years, and by Fiscal 1959 there
was no shortage of machines. For 1961 to 1965, average annual
production increased by more than 30 percent. As a result, readership,
largely talking-book users, rose by about 45 percent between 1956 and
1965.
Integrating production with research and development, the division
began in Fiscal 1957 to produce two-speed machines which could play
both the existing 33V3-rpm records and the 16%-rpm discs under de-
velopment. Two experimental talking books were produced at the
slower speed in Fiscal 1959: John Gunther's Inside Russia Today,
narrated by the author, on nine-inch embossed discs; and San Fran-
cisco Bay, on twelve-inch pressed discs. The embossed disc proved a
literary success but a mechanical failure. Three years later, the divi-
sion began converting the talking-book program to the slower speed
on pressed discs, starting with the seventy-five juvenile titles pro-
duced that year. After January 1963, all talking books were produced
at 16% rpm on ten-inch discs, with up to forty-five minutes of reading
time per side. The savings achieved permitted the production of more
copies of each talking book and the first five talking-book magazines
in the program. The division had declared obsolete and recalled all
one-speed machines by July 1962.
In Fiscal 1964, the division began using a double needle with
diamond stylii. The new needle cost twice as much as the sapphire
needle previously provided but played ten times as long, that is, 1 ,500
instead of 150 hours. In addition, it reduced wear on records, pro-
longing their life.
146
History of the Library of Congress Program
In Fiscal 1961 the division also produced an instruction record for
talking-book machines.
At the same time it was developing the 16%-rpm talking book, the
division was conducting, under contract, research on even slower-
playing discs. Practical prototypes of SVa-rpm records and machines
were produced in Fiscal 1959 and field tested. The division began
producing only three-speed machines in Fiscal 1965. And the Tele-
phone Pioneers undertook a three-year project of converting the older
two-speed machines to three speeds by installing new motor as-
semblies. As soon as enough machines were available, the division
planned to produce all new talking books on ten-inch SVs-rpm pressed
discs.
Concurrently, research, development, and field-testing were going
forward on the division's own encapsulated tape system. No proven
cartridge system was on the market at the time. The division's proto-
type machine could play at both the standard commercial speed of 1%
inches per second (ips) and 15/16 ips, and the machine itself selected
the appropriate speed automatically. The cartridge measured 6^2 " by
6" by 1%", weighed two pounds, and held 900 feet of tape, up to
twelve hours of reading time. Technical problems, especially duplica-
tion of tapes, persisted, and this system was never incorporated into
the program. Once a satisfactory cartridge system was worked out, the
division envisioned ultimately converting completely to it, but for
some years to come it would function in tandem with discs. An encap-
sulated tape system offered many advantages over both discs, which
were less compact, and open-reel tape, which required threading.
Open-Reel Magnetic Tape
Before 1956, the regionals had been acquiring volunteer-produced
books on open-reel magnetic tape and integrating this service with the
circulation of braille and talking books provided by the federal pro-
gram. To provide specialized materials and to fill in gaps in the
collections, in Fiscal 1959 the division began acquiring volunteer-
produced master tapes and duplicating them on request for loan to
readers. By then virtually all the volunteer groups had switched from
embossed discs to tape recording. The following year about thirty
titles were available for national circulation and the division often
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That All May Read
assigned titles to volunteer narrators, supplying them with the print
books and blank tapes. By July 1961, the collection consisted of about
350 volunteer-produced master tapes and some 1 ,200 AFB and APH
tapes, all the master tapes for talking books mass-produced in the
previous 3V2 years. The latter allowed the division to reissue titles
without having to rerecord them when the talking-book program was
converted to 16% rpm. In Fiscal 1962 the division began distributing
open-reel submasters to regional libraries on a regular basis for dupli-
cation as needed.
The economics of open-reel magnetic tape lent itself particularly
well to periodicals; older issues could be erased to record new ones.
Nine magazines were available in Fiscal 1962 and more were later
added, often specialized titles with limited appeal. Among the books
included in the collection were Jaspersen's Growth and Structure of
the English Language, Deutsch's Psychology of Women, Shaw's
Fabian Essays on Socialism, Camus' s L' Etranger, Kazantzakes's
Zorba the Greek, Bradbury's Martian Chronicles, Weill's 5mw-
merhill, Marlowe's Jew of Malta, and Jimenez's P/ar^rovyo, re-
corded in Spanish. This edition of Plateroyyo was the publication
that made Jimenez eligible for the 1956 Nobel Prize for literature,
which he won.-"-
In 1964 procedures and standards for evaluating volunteer-
produced tape masters were prepared. The next year the division
began providing technical assistance to help volunteer groups improve
the physical environment in which they recorded. By July 1965, the
collection included some 2,400 volunteer-produced titles, circulation
at the regional had almost doubled since the previous year, and tape-
recorded editions of Braille Book Review and Talking Book Topics
were begun on a regular- basis.
Provided recording standards were maintained, volunteer-produced
open-reel magnetic tapes, unlike embossed discs, were a considerable
boon to the division. It had not succeeded in developing a talking-
book machine which would satisfactorily play both the program's hard
discs and the various embossed discs produced by volunteers. For
open-reel tape, however, patrons used their own commercial
machines, which meant no production and no repair problems for the
division. Volunteers donated their labor and either owned or had
148
History of the Library of Congress Program
access to recording equipment. Therefore open-reel-tape books cost
relatively little. And the medium allowed excellent inventory control;
with discs, the division was more or less tied to the number of records
pressed at one time, but tapes could be either erased or duplicated.
And tape permitted production of reading materials that appealed to
limited audiences as opposed to the wide-appeal criterion for mass-
produced discs. The program was not without drawbacks, most nota-
bly the difficulty blind readers had threading open-reel tapes. Patrons
often returned containers full of unwound tape to the libraries.
Nevertheless, the open-reel collection represented a useful interim
stage during the development of a cassette system.
Handcopied Braille
The increasing emphasis on volunteer-produced materials which
began in the late 1950s extended to braille transcription. The division
issued lists of groups and individuals who brailled and recorded books
and in Fiscal 1963 began publishing the directory Volunteers Who
Produce Books in print and braille. When "a distinct variance in
preferred language usage" in the United States and the United King-
dom led to "separate, though basically similar, codes designed to
apply to the English language as practiced in each country," the
division made available the resulting English Braille, American Edi-
tion, 1959.-^^ And in Fiscal 1963 the division made arrangements to
duplicate by the Thermoform process the more significant handcopied
books for distributing to selected regional libraries, multiplying the
effect of their transcribers' efforts.
Selection
The division's selection policy was constantly improving. A
number of books it produced later became bestsellers, appeared in
compilations such as "Good Reading," or won awards. For example,
the 1962 and 1963 Pulitzer Prize-winners in both fiction and nonfic-
tion and the Newbery Award-winner in 1962 won on the basis of
books already selected for the program.
The division began to stress specific areas annually; for example,
titles for juvenile readers and young adults in Fiscal 1960, vocational
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That All May Read
literature in Fiscal 1964, and Broadway plays and American poetry on
discs in 1965.
The division received a grant from the National Aeronautic and
Space Administration to produce in both braille and recorded formats
five books in the Vistas of Science series and current editions of
NASA Facts and several pamphlets on space travel. The Food and
Drug Administration provided funds for recording a publication ex-
posing quackery. Your Money and Your Life, intended especially for
older citizens. Other federal agencies using their own funds to provide
their publications in a form accessible to blind people was a real
breakthrough.
For books of high current interest, speedy production was impor-
tant. In Fiscal 1959, the highly popular Dr. Zhivago was ordered,
produced by APH, and on library shelves in two months' time; it was
the largest talking-book edition the division had produced, 251 copies.
In Fiscal 1965, The Report of the President's Commission on the
Assassination of President John F. Kennedy was produced in braille
and talking-book editions within a few weeks of the print publication.
By March 1966, the division could say there was no controversy
about selection for the general collection: there was some disappoint-
ment because not everything could be produced, but the problem was
economic, not philosophical.
Work on the children's collection progressed. In Fiscal 1961 the
division was making headway on a basic list of 500 juvenile titles and
the American Textbook Publishers Institute gave blanket copyright
permission, as did the Children's Book Council three years later. An
increased appropriation for braille permitted the division to add
American Girl. Boys' Life, and National Geographic in Fiscal 1963.
The next year. Jack and Jill was added in recorded format to supple-
ment the long-established braille edition. In Fiscal 1965 the division
began producing children's picture books in PRINT/BRAILLE. That
is, the braille transcriptions of the text were interleaved with the
original print pages and illustrations, allowing blind parents to read
them to sighted children and blind children to have the same physical
text as sighted children. The following year, the Boy Scouts of
America paid half the costs of recording the Boy Scout Handbook, for
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History of the Library of Congress Program
which volunteers produced Thermoform facsimiles of symbols and
badges.
Access
In 1964, the division assumed greater editorial control over Braille
Book Review and Talking Book Topics, the two periodicals that an-
nounce new titles. To increase their usefulness to patrons, the print
editions were published in larger format and larger type and books
were listed by title rather than author. BBR listed only braille books
and TBT only recorded books, but a combined braille edition was
available. New features included an index, a student's section, re-
printed articles, book reviews, and articles about regional libraries,
narrators, authors, and other subjects of interest. Short bibliographies
were added the following year.
For both talking books and press-braille adult books, the program
had initially followed a repetitive pattern of annual catalogs periodi-
cally gathered into cumulative catalogs, the last of which covered
1934 to 1948. As the collections grew, however, describing them in
single catalogs became impractical. The division began producing a
series of catalogs listing books produced over two- to five-year
periods through the 1962-1963 cumulation. And in Fiscal 1962 it
issued a cumulative catalog for press-braille books produced between
1948 and 1954. This catalog filled the gap so that a complete set of
catalogs described all the books produced. Because the older records
did not play well on the newer machines, in 1958 the division issued a
cumulative catalog of talking books which was not a true supplement;
it included only microgroove records, produced between 1953 and
1957. In the mid-1960s, it issued annual indexes to Talking Book
Topics and Braille Book Review in alternating years between two-
year catalogs.
For a time beginning in Fiscal 1939 catalogs of braille books were
brailled as part of the collections and could be borrowed from regional
libraries. When the division resumed brailling catalogs in the late
1950s, they were made available on request from active braille readers
and could be retained by them.
Catalogs for both braille and recorded books for juveniles were
151
That All May Read
brailled. In fact, Juvenile Braille Books, cumulative since January 1,
1953, published in Fiscal 1959, was one of the first braille editions of
a catalog of braille books in over ten years. Its companion catalog.
Talking Books for Juvenile Readers, also cumulative since January 1 ,
1953 and published in Fiscal 1959, was the first catalog produced in
large type, a practice that was so well received that it became standard
for all publications for patrons. In 1962 the postal laws added mate-
rials in large print, 14-point type or larger, to items for blind people
that could be mailed free.-"''
The division also issued catalogs of volunteer-produced books. It
published a supplement to the union catalog of handcopied books in
1960 in print and braille editions, a list of some 4,200 titles. Patrons
were informed about the open-reel magnetic tape collection first
through short multilithed lists and then, in 1961, by Books on
Magnetic Tape, available in large print and braille.
The division's first separate bibliography was published in 1960,
Reading for Profit, an annotated list of books in press-braille and
talking-book format on the general theme of self-improvement: vo-
cational training, personal adjustment, and economic advancement.
The braille edition was available by July 196 1 . This bibliography
proved so popular that it was revised, in part to include open-reel
magnetic-tape titles, and reprinted in large print in Fiscal 1963; the
braille edition was transcribed by volunteers in prison and made avail-
able by the division. The tape edition followed the next year. Books
for Pleasant Reading: An Annotated List of Talking Books was pub-
lished in large print in 1961 , and Counseling and Rehabilitation: A
List of Books Recorded on Magnetic Tape in 1962.
The 1966 standards called for sufficient comprehensive annotated
catalogs to meet the personal needs of each reader and to serve as
reference tools for librarians, a union catalog of all materials available
for blind readers, a means of browsing to select material, and analytic
on-request bibliographies. All but the last were fairly well provided.
Music
When the Library of Congress opened its Reading Room for the
Blind in 1897, it had on hand a little embossed music. Its sources
152
History of the Library of Congress Program
limited to gifts, APH deposits required by law, and volunteer tran-
scriptions, the division in 1962 had only a "small and fragmentary"
collection of embossed music. No other library's collection was ade-
quate. Volunteer braillists in this field were relatively few and their
activities not coordinated; moreover, handtranscriptions took a long
time. Finally, there was no central listing of what was already avail-
able.-"'^ On October 9, 1962, President John F. Kennedy signed into
law an act which established in the division a library of music scores
and other instructional music materials for blind people.-"^ The act
does not include music for listening pleasure. This legislation offered
the hope of much improved service to the serious blind musician.
Although no additional funds were appropriated the year the legis-
lation was enacted, favorable prices offered by APH and the Howe
Press allowed the division to acquire their entire stock, about 8,000
items, due to economies it effected elsewhere. By July 1964, the
collection included most of the scores produced by the braille presses
in Europe as well, a total of about 19,000 titles. Acquisition of further
suitable materials — in areas such as folk music, modern music, mod-
ern texts, and scores for accordion, guitar, and woodwinds —
depended on volunteers, most of whom were not yet trained in the
complexities of braille music notation. In the mid-1960s several of the
large music publishers granted blanket permission for brailling their
publications. In Fiscal 1965, the division made arrangements for tape
recording instructional works with musical illustrations and began
working on a union catalog of braille music scores and texts to facili-
tate coordinating the work of volunteers throughout the country.
The Physically Handicapped
On July 30, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Public Law
89-522, which extended the division's services to people with physi-
cal handicaps other than blindness who are certified by competent
medical authority as being unable to hold, handle, or read conven-
tional print materials because of physical limitations.'"' Thus the law
extended eligibility to people who have no arms or fingers or who are
in iron lungs, and those who have muscular dystrophy, multiple
153
That All May Read
sclerosis, cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease, or other crippling dis-
ease. People with such disabilities had not previously had access to
library services. The division was serving about 25 percent of an
estimated 400,000 blind people. If the same proportion of newly
eligible people, estimated to number 1.5 million, applied for service,
the number of patrons would increase by almost 400 percent. In addi-
tion, in 1970, the Library of Congress modified its regulations to
make eligible for service people with a "visual disability, with cor-
rection and regardless of optical measurement with respect to 'legal
blindness,' " are certified as unable to read normal printed mate-
rials.-"* Such an expansion of service had ramifications for every
aspect of the program.
The extension of eligibility had been discussed at least as far back
as 1945, when other physically handicapped people became aware of
library services being provided to service men blinded in the war. At
hearings held in 1963, a number of organizations working for or
composed of blind people had commented that such an extension
would create all sorts of problems, ranging from copyright infringe-
ment to diminished service for blind readers. By the time hearings
were held in 1966, however, these fears had been allayed for the most
part. When it became apparent early in 1966 that Congress was in-
terested in passing such legislation, the division increased the number
of copies of each recorded title, building up a reserve to meet the
expected demand. Copyright holders were cooperative, and, to assure
that service to existing clientele did not suffer. Congress provided a
supplemental appropriation of just under $1.5 million on October 27,
1966. The division increased the number of recorded titles produced
by 25 percent and more than doubled the number of talking-book
machines purchased, from 20,000 to 40,800. In 1967, service to
physically handicapped people was facilitated when Congress
changed the postal laws to add them to the list of those who could send
and receive free mail.-"^
To inform new potential users of the service, the division actively
participated in conferences of the National Muscular Dystrophy Soci-
ety, the United Cerebral Palsy Association, the Council for Excep-
154
History of the Library of Congress Program
tional Children, the National Society for Crippled Children and
Adults, and other organizations. Initially, about 1 ,000 new readers
applied for service each month, including previously eligible blind
people made aware of the program by the publicity.
To prepare for the expanded service, the division sponsored the first
joint meeting of regional and state librarians in November 1966. Divi-
sion management participated in each of the nine regional conferences
of state librarians sponsored by the U.S. Office of Education to dis-
cuss library services to physically handicapped people. And in Feb-
ruary 1967, the division sponsored a joint meeting of heads of
machine-lending agencies and regional librarians.
As the collections grew, regional libraries began to suffer shortages
of space, staff, and operating funds. To help the states expand ser-
vices. Congress had amended the Library Services and Construction
Act (LSCA) in July 1966.^'" It made funds available to states under
Title IV- A for library service to residents of state institutions, some of
whom were eligible for the program, and under Title IV-B for library
services to blind and physically handicapped readers. As a result, in
1966 each state received $39,000 for residents of state institutions and
about $26,000 for blind and physically handicapped persons. Delays
in implementing the act and inadequate Title IV-B funding did little to
alleviate the regional libraries" problems. Several regionals and
machine-lending agencies were not prepared to extend services to the
new clientele immediately; in the interim, the division provided direct
service in such areas. In 1970. Titles IV-A and IV-B were combined
into Title I of the LSCA.^" Since then, the pattern of funding has
varied greatly from state to state.
By Fiscal 1973, ten regional libraries depended on LSCA funds for
at least half of their total budget; seven used them for operating ex-
penses to some extent. By the mid-1970s, states applied such funds in
a variety of ways to begin or improve library services to handicapped
people. Some conducted statewide studies and plans, user surveys, or
renovation of facilities. Others installed WATS service or purchased
reading aids for exhibit or loan to patrons, tape duplication equipment,
large-print books, blank tape, or subchannel radio receivers. Some
155
That All May Read
states established or automated regional libraries and others supported
subregional libraries — local, usually public, libraries that serve
specified parts of the regional" s territory. When LSCA funds were
later reduced, many states and communities assumed part of these
costs, while others did not.
LSCA funding provided a major impetus to development of the
network. In 1966, the program's materials were being circulated by 32
regional libraries. By the end of Fiscal 1973, there were 50 regionals
and 72 subregionals. Eight years later, the corresponding numbers
were 56 and 101.
The division itself underwent change as a result of the extended
service and in continued response to the St. John survey. On August
26, 1966, it became the Division for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped. The number of its authorized permanent staff positions rose
from thirty-eight in Fiscal 1966 to fifty-four in Fiscal 1967. In Feb-
ruary 1967, the division moved some five miles to an annex where
enough space could be provided for staff and the collections. In April
1973, the Martin Luther King, Jr., Memorial Library, in Washington,
D.C. , took over regional service for District of Columbia residents.
After Maryland assumed responsibility for braille service to its blind
residents in October 1977, the division provided direct service only to
U.S. citizens living abroad and music patrons. In June 1978, as part of
the first major reorganization of the Library of Congress since the
early 1940s, the division was restructured and renamed the National
Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS), the
name and abbreviation by which it will be referred to throughout the
rest of this history. Its budget grew from slightly more than $4.5
million for Fiscal 1966 to almost $10 million for Fiscal 1974 to $33.4
million for Fiscal 1983.
Extending service to physically handicapped readers had a perva-
sive influence on NLS internal functions. It necessitated an increased
responsiveness to consumer needs and affected research and develop-
ment; and the rapid growth of the program led to automating opera-
tions, an expanded collection and improved support services to the
network of cooperating libraries, better utilization of volunteers, more
outreach activities, and recognition of the need for international coop-
eration.
156
History of the Library of Congress Program
Consumer Relations
Between 1966 and 1983, the number of blind and physically handi-
capped library users more than tripled. Also during this period, the
complexity of products and services increased and the needs of readers
became more diverse. NLS learned about consumer needs through the
thousands of letters and telephone calls received each year, as well as
through studies and surveys, staff attendance at consumer meetings,
and consumer advisory committees which make suggestions to net-
work libraries. To assure that users' views and needs were system-
atically taken into account in all facets of planning and program de-
velopment, on June 2, 1980, NLS established a Consumer Relations
Section.
Consumer advice has long been sought on book selection and
equipment design. Since 1976, the ad hoc advisory group on
collection-building activities, composed of consumer and network
librarian representatives, has met each year to advise NLS on selection
priorities. The committee does not select specific titles but recom-
mends general guidelines within which selections are made. Another
consumer group has worked with NLS intermittently on development
of a machine capable of playing both discs and cassettes. Consumers
have frequently participated in reviews and tests of other equipment
and related products. In 1976 groups of consumers began regularly
assisting NLS with its public education programming, by reviewing
radio and television materials aimed at recruiting new readers.
Since the late 1960s, consumers have, as individuals, had an op-
portunity to help determine which magazines are selected for the
program. Any library user can subscribe to Magazine of the Month,
which is recorded on disc, or Magazine of the Quarter, which is
produced in braille. The primary purpose of these two publications is
to give blind and physically handicapped subscribers an opportunity to
browse through sample periodicals that are not usually available in
special format. In addition, NLS then surveys subscribers regarding
their magazine preferences; it uses the results to help choose maga-
zines to be added to the program when circumstances permit.
Research has become an increasingly important tool for evaluating
the needs and opinions of consumers. For example, three extensive
157
That All May Read
surveys commissioned by NLS have provided significant direction for
the Library of Congress program since the late 1960s.
A study conducted by Nelson Associates, Inc., in 1968, focused on
users — who they were, what special circumstances shaped their li-
brary needs, what they read and what they wanted to read.-'^ The
study was based on a random sample of print and braille question-
naires completed by subscribers to Talking Book Topics and Braille
Book Review, respectively, supplemented by interviews with a limited
number of patrons.
Compared with the general population, NLS patrons were found to
be better educated and older. Of the total readership, which included
users too young to have done either, more than half had graduated
from high school and one in six from college. The study report sug-
gested that perhaps better educated blind and physically handicapped
people were more likely to become patrons. Nearly half of the total
readership had become unable to use conventional print after the age
of fifty-five, and 34 percent were sixty-five years of age or older. One
patron in five was a homemaker, and more than half of all readers
were retired or unemployed.
In contrast, patrons responding on the braille questionnaire, taken
as a separate group, were younger and more likely to be employed or
in school. Nearly 60 percent had become unable to use conventional
print before the age of fourteen and about 95 percent before the age of
forty-five. A substantial proportion (42 percent) were between the
ages of fifteen and twenty-four. Twenty-five percent were employed
and another 40 percent were students.
Of the total readership, 98 percent read talking books. Among
braille respondents, 63 percent had borrowed braille materials, and 88
percent talking books. The reader characteristics reported had impli-
cations for format and equipment development. Older patrons tended
to prefer talking books and talking-book machines. While many
readers probably were unfamiliar with cassette machines, among the
few readers who had access to them, more than half said they would
prefer cassettes to any other format, despite the fact that they had not
had the opportunity to borrow any cassette books. Patrons who were
younger, employed, or better educated, and those with more
specialized reading interests were more likely to use tape recorders.
158
History of the Library of Congress Program
Readers who had obtained materials on tape gave substantially
higher ratings than did the total readership to books which treated sex
and violence frankly, outstanding nineteenth- and twentieth-century
authors, history, philosophy, instructional materials, essays, and
special-interest magazines. The reading needs and preferences of
older readers were different, but not sharply different, from those of
other groups. Such patrons tended to be less interested than younger
readers in instructional or how-to materials, special-interest maga-
zines, science fiction, books which treated sex or violence frankly,
and vocational, technical, and professional materials. The survey re-
port warned, however, against stereotyping older patrons, pointing
out that, having become handicapped late in life, they had developed a
wide diversity of reading needs and tastes. The problem in book
selection was to do the best possible job in meeting diverse reading
needs without shortchanging the interests of the majority of readers.
Inasmuch as they tended to give both selection and service a "very
good" rating, older patrons either were being well served or were a
less critical, more appreciative audience. In any case, four subject
categories were rated "very important" by more than half of the
readers: general-interest magazines; current events, news, and popular
culture; pleasant novels, family stories, and light romances; and
bestsellers.
Among the comments made in patron interviews were a number of
suggestions subsequently addressed by the division, including a
means of transferring eligibility from one library to another, a way to
locate a book without knowing the full title or book number, more
historical novels, better reference service, an effective interlibrary
loan system with a reasonably fast way to check other libraries' hold-
ings, a union catalog, personal copies of magazines, more frequent
cumulative catalogs, a machine that could play both discs and tape,
standardized needles, four-track tapes, and automatic shutoff for
talking-book machines.
The survey found that half the patrons learned of the program first
through friends or family and another 43 percent through a school,
hospital, or other institution. Very few readers reported first hearing
about the service through publicity, although clearly some of their
friends and families may have learned of it in that way. Since more
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That All May Read
than 70 percent of the patrons had a vision handicap alone and less
than 4 percent had a physical handicap alone, it was apparent that
public education methods then in use were not reaching the physically
handicapped population. The study report recommended that televi-
sion, radio, and public libraries be used to reach into local com-
munities and that the division consider adding a full-time media
specialist to its staff to advise and assist regional libraries with their
public education programs.
The report also recommended establishing a machine-record data
file on reader characteristics. Such a system could be used to facilitate
transfer of eligibility to another library, purge no longer eligible
readers from the lists, update patron addresses, and supply statistics
pertinent to book selection. Other recommendations included estab-
lishing uniform statistical reporting, and finding a way to handle less
frequently used materials, possibly through "'superregionals"
operating on a contractual basis with other regionals in a multistate
area and public libraries' involvement in meeting patrons' reference
needs.
A nonuser survey, conducted in 1977 by AFB with a random sam-
pling of households and institutions nationwide, was designed to de-
termine the number and characteristics of potential users and their
awareness of the program. The contractor's report was submitted in
the fall of 1980.213
Among the most significant findings were; 3. 1 million people in the
United States were eligible for the program; 2.6 million of those
identified lived in households and 0.5 million were in nursing homes,
hospitals, or schools for handicapped individuals. Two-thirds of the
total number had a visual impairment; the rest had a physical hand-
icap. Forty-seven percent were sixty-five years old or older, as com-
pared to 1 1 percent of the country's population. Nearly 75 percent had
serious chronic health conditions other than those affecting their abil-
ity to read conventional print which could inhibit their use of the
program, such as an inability to use the telephone or operate a record
or cassette player. Seventy-five percent had done some kind of read-
ing in the previous month and of them about half had read regular
print, often using low-vision aids. Print was the preferred medium for
about half of the print limitation population that read. Eighty-five
160
History of the Library of Congress Program
percent of the eligible population had never used the program, but 65
percent of these had some awareness of the program. Four- fifths of the
remaining 15 percent were current users and one-fifth were former
users.
Significant differences were found between users and nonusers.
Users more than nonusers tended to be younger, white, better edu-
cated, white collar professionals, healthier, more mobile, with fewer
specific reading limitations. They read more, were more independent
readers, and were more likely to have been library patrons before the
onset of their handicap. Nineteen percent of users also read regular
print, whereas more than 70 percent of nonusers did. As many as
three-fourths of the users were certified as legally blind, while only 20
percent of the nonusers had obtained such certification. These last
findings suggested that there was a strong association between certifi-
cation and readiness to accept and use special reading services and
also between getting certified and becoming aware of or being referred
toNLS.
The nonuser study showed that 43 percent of the eligible population
had never heard of the NLS program. Of those who were aware of it, a
little less than 40 percent first heard of it from friends or family, one in
three of whom were themselves print-limited. One in four first learned
of the program through public service announcements on television or
radio or articles in newspapers or magazines. The rest first heard of
the program from such sources as special schools or classes, rehabili-
tation programs, clubs and organizations, health services, or libraries.
The study noted that, although health care professionals were in an
ideal position to refer people, they had a poor track record.
Of the nonusers, about one-fourth, conservatively estimated, ex-
pressed an interest in NLS services. The greatest interest was indi-
cated by parents of children with dyslexia and other learning prob-
lems, who tended to be less aware of the program and whose chil-
dren's eligibility falls under the NLS rubiic "reading limitations
stemming from 'organic dysfunctions,' " the causes of which are
often difficult to assess clinically. Blacks also showed a strong inter-
est in trying the program, although they tended to be less familiar with
it than were whites. Interest was also expressed by many people with
primarily physical limitations in reading and by older persons who had
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That All May Read
nonreading physical problems in addition to their visual limitations,
but people in these groups often indicated they were unable to operate
the disc and cassette players by themselves.
The study report recommended that equipment be made easier to
understand and operate and more responsive to the needs of those who
are elderly, frail, or multiply impaired and that high-interest, low-
vocabulary titles (because of nonusers' lower educational level) and
shorter materials (because of their poorer health) be added to the
collection. And it endorsed and urged the expansion of the NLS public
education program using public service announcements.
Several persistent problems were discussed in the study. It noted the
resistance to print alternatives on the part of many people who needed
them. It found, for example, that most people who sought print alter-
natives did so within five years of the onset of their limiting condition
and that if they were not motivated to do so then they tended not to use
them at all. It noted the lingering image of NLS as a program strictly
for blind people. That only 2 percent of users did not have visual
impairments was due in large part to the absence of a network of
organizations for people who were physically handicapped or learning
disabled comparable to that consisting of active rehabilitation agencies
and established advocacy groups of and for blind people, which were
two of the major NLS referral sources. It noted the difficulties in-
volved in serving institutionalized eligible people. While 86 percent of
the institutions were aware of the NLS program, most staff thought
only totally blind people qualified. While 24 percent of the residents
of institutions read with recordings, probably as many as 50 percent
would qualify for service. The survey found staff and administrators
indifferent to the program, often considering reading a private or
antisocial activity not to be encouraged particularly, its only advan-
tage over television being intellectual stimulation. Successful NLS
programs in institutions were associated with a staff member who
championed the service and with an effective organizational
mechanism for systematically ordering and distributing materials and
equipment. Expansion of service to institutions would require innova-
tive techniques, such as developing volunteer or self-help mutual aid
programs, and regular personal contact with and continual training
and encouragement of staff, due to high turnover. The report also
162
History of the Library of Congress Program
noted that informational needs, including professional and research
materials, of users were not being met by other alternatives to print.
Data about users gleaned from the nonuser study were further in-
vestigated by a user survey conducted in 1979 and reported in 1981 by
Market Facts, Inc.-''* Updating the 1968 user study, the survey was
intended to collect more current information about patron characteris-
tics and attitudes toward specific aspects of the program. Ten
thousand readers were surveyed by mail, with questions in large-print
format. A response was obtained from more than 40 percent of those
sent questionnaires.
No sharp changes in readership had occurred. Different sampling
methods and survey instruments precluded precise comparisons, but
some relatively minor shifts appeared to have taken place. Since 1968,
the proportion of patrons over age 64 and of users with a physical
handicap alone had risen. The proportion of users in institutions had
risen since 1979. Braille readership and the proportion of nonwhite
patrons had fallen since 1968.
The 198 1 study found that almost equal proportions of users learned
of the program from friends and relatives (37 percent) and schools,
libraries, or organizations serving people eligible for the program (35
percent). Hospitals, nursing homes, doctors, and nurses informed
about 14 percent. The rest first heard of the program from public
libraries, social service organizations serving the general public, the
media, and other sources.
Although patrons tended to be well educated, their incomes were
low (almost 60 percent under $10,000), due to the large number of
retired or unemployed persons. The four most popular categories of
reading subjects were bestsellers, historical fiction, humor, and biog-
raphy, closely followed by history, detective and mystery stories, and
literature. Only 14 percent of users had ever visited their libraries in
person; two out of three attributed this to the distance involved. More
users of subregionals (20 percent) than of regionals ( 1 2 percent) had
visited their library. Sixty-eight percent of subregional patrons rated
service as excellent as opposed to 56 percent of patrons using re-
gionals. And 70 percent of subregional patrons reported their book
orders were filled quickly as opposed to 60 percent of regional pa-
trons.
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That All May Read
Among the report's recommendations were encouraging subre-
gional systems and developing a campaign to attract nonwhite, less
well educated, and lower-income readers. To alert readers to the pres-
ence of strong language or frank descriptions of sex or violence, the
report suggested narrating annotations at the beginning of recorded
books, a practice NLS adopted even before the final report was sub-
mitted. And the study confirmed the need for NLS efforts to develop
an easy cassette machine and to produce extension levers for cassette
controls.
NLS conducts various specialized surveys from time to time. For
example, in 1982 a survey measured the interest in a small, light-
weight cassette player. Another survey is in progress in 1983 to meas-
ure present and past use of braille books and magazines produced by
NLS. NLS expects to use the information from the latter survey to
improve the selection, production, and distribution methods of braille
materials in the coming years.
Responsibility to consumers and close and frequent communication
with consumers were stressed by the 1979 ALA standards for library
services for blind and physically handicapped people. Focusing on the
entire NLS network, the standards delineate criteria for every aspect
of the program to ensure effective library service. ^'^ The standards
were considered benchmarks, reflecting contemporary practice in
many network libraries. By definition, then, such standards were a
point of reference from which measurements may be made, and NLS
contracted with Battelle Columbus Laboratories to conduct the first
nationwide review of a type of library — libraries for blind and physi-
cally handicapped readers — in relation to a set of standards promul-
gated by ALA. The study has a two-fold purpose: to test the validity of
the standards as a tool for measuring services and to arrive at a true
picture of the success of the service nationwide. Battelle visited and
evaluated NLS, the fifty-six regional libraries, and the four multistate
centers, and is producing a comprehensive, objective, state-of-the-
network report with comparative data for libraries of similar size and
scope. Meanwhile, the standards are used in virtually every aspect of
NLS operations to further the philosophy of the national program that
users of network libraries shall have access to library services equiva-
lent in extent and quality to that available to the general population.
164
History of the Library of Congress Program
Research and Development
In 1966, braille books were being produced largely by the same
laborious methods that had been used for decades, the few magazines
that were available were circulated on loan, and patrons had access to
a standardized type of talking-book machine. By 1982, most braille
books were being transcribed by computers, magazines in braille or on
flexible discs were mailed to patrons directly from the producer and
were theirs to keep, patrons were using both disc and cassette
playback machines, and a "family of machines" was on the horizon.
These vast changes came about through a continuing research and
development program whose two major elements are perfecting
existing products while at the same time considering and testing other
products with potential for the future. NLS has developed new mate-
rials and machines for the program primarily by adapting technologi-
cal advances in other fields to the needs of blind and physically handi-
capped readers. Such technology can be used only v.hcii it is suffi-
ciently advanced for the costs to be suitable for mass-production ma-
terials.
Recorded Materials
In the years immediately following the extension of service to
physically handicapped people, NLS emphasized recorded materials,
producing unusually large numbers of machines until people in the
newly eligible group were receiving adequate service and demand for
machines leveled off.
At the same time, research continued to develop machines that were
lighter in weight, sturdier, easier to operate, and more attractively
designed. In Fiscal 1968, a new, lightweight, fully transistorized
talking-book machine, model AE-5, was produced in a sturdy but
attractive plastic carrying case. The two-speaker system, with one
speaker mounted in the detachable lid which could be placed up to
eight feet away from the machine, improved the distribution of sound.
Experimentation with production of 8'/3-rpm discs continued in an
effort to provide more reading material in less space. The 8 Vs speed
had been provided on all new machines produced since 1965, and by
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That All May Read
1969 all older two-speed machines in use had been converted to three
speeds through the volunteer efforts of the Telephone Pioneers. In
1969 all recorded-magazine production was converted to the 8'/3
speed, which provided up to IVi hours of reading time on twelve-inch
discs. The format was generally well received, although there were
some problems because of the closeness of the grooves, which some-
times caused the needle to skip and made it difficult for readers to
locate their place after the needle had been removed.
Concurrently, the reading format that was to have the greatest
long-range effect on the program was introduced when 1 ,000 com-
mercially available cassette machines were purchased for evaluation.
The greater portability and economy of cassette machines as compared
to talking-book machines promised to increase the capacity of library
services greatly. To test readers" acceptance of the cassette format,
150 titles selected from the 1964- 1965 catalog of talking books were
made available through a new catalog sent to approximately 1 ,000
readers participating in a six-month survey. The response was en-
thusiastic, so in 1968 the first cassettes were added to the program,
many of them commercially produced, especially children's books.
Within three years. Talking Book Topics had replaced its open-reel
magnetic-tape section with a listing of cassettes.
By 197 1 cassette playback machines had been produced applying
NLS specifications to adapt General Electric machines to program
needs. The machines had rechargeable batteries and two playback
speeds: 1% ips. the commercial speed, and 15/16 ips, the speed pro-
posed for NLS material. The slower speed would permit NLS to put
three hours of recorded material, rather than the usual ninety minutes,
on a single cassette. Machine controls were marked with raised
characters to facilitate operation by blind and physically handicapped
people.
Volunteers did ail the narration of books for the cassette collection;
NLS contracted only for the duplication. A significant number of
volunteer-produced titles were added to both the national and the
network library collections. In 197 1 alone, eight new volunteer taping
groups were started. Duplicating cassette titles strained the resources
of the contractors, APH and AFB, and NLS continued to supplement
its collection with commercially produced material.
166
History of the Library of Congress Program
When volunteers submitted tapes of unequal lengths for duplica-
tion, NLS solved the problem initially with timing devices and later
with pretimed tapes. Because of the need to standardize volunteer-
produced material, NLS then prepared a set of instructions for re-
cordings that became the basis for formal specifications for contrac-
tors and volunteers alike. By 1972, NLS had opened its own recording
studio with a volunteer director in charge of recording activities and of
auditioning other volunteers to serve as naiTators. Since 1973, both
director and staff have been paid for their services.
Improvement of the original talking-book (disc) format continued
as the new cassette format was introduced. The 40,000 new disc
machines that had been acquired in 1969 were improved over previous
models. Refinements included moving the speed-control mechanism
and the on-off switch, adding an attachment jack, and restyling the
volume and tone-control knobs. A solid-state amplifier provided an
"instant-on" feature, so the machine could be turned off and on again
without removing the needle and without losing more than a syllable
of the text. Accessories, including variable-speed and remote-control
devices and earphones, were ordered.
In Fiscal 1972, NLS postponed procurement of new cassette
machines in favor of the purchase of an additional 24,000 A-7 1 model
talking-book machines to fill the greater-than-expected demand. NLS
also took delivery on 2,000 B-7 1 battery-operated talking-book
machines, purchased 500 B-7 1 A machines for use by readers over-
seas, and contracted for production of 2 1 ,000 new model machines,
the A-72, which incorporated a more compact casing.
In Fiscal 1973, a new model cassette machine was designed to NLS
specifications and 30,000 were ordered for the following year. Be-
sides the two playback speeds of previous machines, the design incor-
porated four- track reproduction, which could provide up to six hours
of playback per C-90 cassette. The new machine also could accom-
modate tone-indexed tapes and a speech compression attachment —
two features that did not become practical for production for several
years.
Studies began for further improvements to be incorporated in later
models. An automatic-reverse cassette deck was developed, adapting
an existing commercial machine. With a four-track cassette, this
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That All May Read
would allow six hours of unattended book playback. Included was a
"touch plate" remote control that would stop and restart the tape
whenever desirable. This type of unit was considered mainly for use
by bedridden patrons in institutions. However, the size and cost of the
deck prevented production. Studies also began on a plug-in phono-
graph deck for cassette machines so patrons would not need both a
cassette and a disc machine. The deck, which was to consist primarily
of a turntable and tone arm with a variable-speed control, was en-
visioned as an inexpensive accessory. The advantages it offered over
two machines would be smaller size, less weight, and lower unit cost.
In 1974, however, extreme shortages of basic materials — electrical
components, plastics, and all petroleum derivatives — slowed ad-
vances in machine production. To meet the immediate need for
equipment, efforts turned to repairing and bringing back into service
all machines possible, regardless of model. New disc machines were
distributed according to proven need upon request of patrons. Cassette
machines were distributed to network libraries in proportion to the
number of readers served by each state.
Meanwhile, the C-73 cassette machines had been produced and
distributed and were available to accommodate the new cassette for-
mat. In 1974, the first cassette book recorded at a speed of 15/16 ips
was produced. A user study of four- track cassettes, similar to the first
survey of cassettes, was conducted in Fiscal 1975 and led to the
production two years later of the first four-track mass-produced cas-
sette book. Roots, by Alex Haley, which was ready shortly after the
television series aired.
The cassette format was not without problems — for example, tape
spilled from the cassette fairly frequently, fouling the machine and
discouraging some patrons. In 1975 NLS began quality-assurance
inspections to verify contractor compliance with procurement speci-
fications for cassette and disc machines and materials, as well as
failure analysis programs to improve reliability. In 1976 containers
were redesigned to reduce handling damage to the tape path on the
exposed side of the cassette case. Beginning with the C-76 playback
machine, all cassette models have been built with a tape-motion sen-
sor that shuts off the machine whenever the cassette take-up reel stops.
In 1980, after a detailed study of the causes of spillage, using slow-
168
History of the Library of Congress Program
motion photography, the chemical composition of the binder holding
the magnetic material to some tape was found to contribute to spillage
causes and tests were devised to cull out such tape and prevent its use.
Throughout the years, NLS has given considerable attention to the
packaging of material. Containers for materials sent through the mails
must be sturdy enough to survive rough handling yet as lightweight as
possible; container labels must be readable through touch as well as
sight. The first plastic cassette containers, which were as large as the
containers for rigid discs, were much lighter than the cardboard con-
tainers used in the early years of the program but were awkward to
handle and larger than necessary to hold cassettes. A smaller container
that allowed the cassettes to be stacked rather than shipped in a single
layer was field tested in 1972 and has subsequently become standard.
Other improvements have been made to provide greater protection for
the cassette tape and to develop a latch that is easy for patrons to open
yet secure enough for mailing.
Along with the development of the cassette format, NLS was ex-
perimenting with the use of flexible discs, which seemed particularly
appropriate for recorded magazines: multiple copies can be produced
rapidly and inexpensively and are durable for the short lifespan needed
for magazines. A format for direct mail was needed because of the
great popularity of magazines and the number of magazine titles pro-
vided to serve readers. By Fiscal 1970, network librarians were
spending 40 percent of their time circulating loan copies of maga-
zines. To relieve them of this burden and to get magazines to patrons
in a more timely manner, direct circulation was essential — in a usable
format and at a reasonable cost.
The first flexible disc used by NLS was bound into Talking Book
Topics as an experiment in 1968 and contained announcements of new
books available. The format proved overwhelmingly popular, and by
1970 the disc contained all the material in the print publication — news
and feature articles as well as book announcements. After the satis-
factory experience with Talking Book Topics, NLS signed contracts
with APH and AFB to develop a flexible disc to be used for direct-
mail magazines. In 1972, three magazines on 8'/3-rpm flexible discs
began direct circulation; in the same year, the first book on flexible
disc, Wheels, by Arthur Hailey, was produced.
169
That All May Read
A study conducted in 1975 by Innovative Systems Research of
Pennsauken, New Jersey, under contract with NLS, affirmed the ad-
visability of an orderly conversion of recorded books from rigid discs
to cassettes and of recorded magazines from rigid discs to flexible
discs. The researchers offered several plans for achieving the conver-
sion while meeting user requirements, including expediting the up-
grading of machine and book production specifications and pursuing
the development of a combination disc-cassette player.
The conversion of magazines was completed in the late 1970s and
all recorded magazines available nationwide through the NLS pro-
gram are mailed directly to readers on SVa-rpm flexible discs, except
for two NLS-produced music magazines which are sent direct mail on
cassettes. In Fiscal 1982, almost 5.5 million flexible-disc copies of
magazines were shipped directly to patrons. Cassettes have become
the major book format for the NLS program because of their compact-
ness, low cost, versatility, and ease of handling. Each four-track
cassette contains up to six hours of reading, and additional copies can
be duplicated by network libraries rather than having to be supplied by
the producer. NLS expects to cease production of rigid discs, the
original recorded format, at the end of 1983. Material recorded on
rigid discs is being reissued on cassettes at the rate of 200 to 300 titles
each year.
In 1977, NLS began a major effort to implement new and more
rigorous quality control. Laboratory and field tests indicated that, as a
result of design improvements and quality-assurance procedures, the
C-76 cassette machine performed better and more reliably than the
C-75.
In 1979, NLS introduced voice indexing with the production on
cassette of Access National Parks: A Guide for Handicapped Vis-
itors. Providing access to specific information in recorded materials
has always been a difficult problem; if readers are to locate informa-
tion efficiently, they require some kind of audible indexing system.
This capacity is particularly important for reference material and re-
lated items, but it is also valuable for magazines, collections of short
stories, and any grouping from which readers might wish to select one
or more items.
The earliest solution to this problem was tone indexing, which
170
History of the Library of Congress Program
became possible when talking-book machines offering more than one
speed were produced. By recording an audible tone at the faster speed
and the text at the slower speed, it is possible to listen to the tones at
the faster speed and switch to the text speed for reading. For cassettes,
the tones are audible when the machine is in the fast-forward mode,
with the text recorded at the normal 15/16-ips speed.
Voice indexing uses key words (in the case of Access, the names of
individual parks) that are audible in the fast-forward mode. When the
key word is located, the tape is stopped and play resumed at normal
speed to obtain the full information. Voice indexing not only permits
many more access points than tone indexing but also defines these
points more clearly. The key to the voice-indexing technique devel-
oped by NLS is a machine that blends the two tapes, one with the
index words and the other with the text, with the precision necessary
for smooth operation. Experience with several voice-indexed books
has refined the process so that the goal of a voice-indexed dictionary,
a reference work long needed by blind and physically handicapped
people, is in sight. Narration of the Concise Heritage Dictionary
began in 1980 and was completed in 1982 for the fifty-five-cassette
dictionary. Production is expected to be completed in 1983.
Over the years a series of machine accessories was developed and
refined by NLS. By 1982, patrons had access to an extension-lever
system for cassette machines to allow easier operation by bedridden
patients, a tone-arm clip for the disc machine for patrons with limited
use of their hands or fingers, on-off remote controls for patrons with
very limited mobility, headphones for private listening and for patrons
with some hearing loss, and special amplifiers for patrons with severe
hearing loss.
One accessory was developed in response to an unusual patron
request. In 1979, an American citizen living "about a hundred
dugout-canoe miles up the Amazon from Cucui (Brazil) '" wrote for
braille magazines and mentioned that she missed her cassette books
but, because there was no electricity in such a remote area, she had no
way to recharge the battery. ^^^ The product developed was a panel
consisting of small silicon solar cells linked together that can operate
the machine in direct sunlight or recharge batteries for use at other
times. This accessory is now available on long-term loan for people
171
That All May Read
living in remote areas without electricity, or on short-term loan for
activities such as camping trips into wilderness areas.
Machine development has continued and in 1982 NLS announced
the planned provision of an interrelated "family of machines," in-
cluding three new machines to join the disc and cassette machines.
Thus by 1984, five machines will provide alternatives to patrons to
meet their different needs.
The combination machine is designed to be the basic machine for
the program, with the capacity to play the cassette format needed for
recorded books and the disc format for recorded magazines. The com-
bination machine has been under development since 1977 and has
undergone substantial modification from the original planning because
of patron evaluations, improved technology in related fields, and
planning for other machines. For playing cassettes, the combination
machine introduces automatic side-switching through all four sides.
At the end of each side, a motor reverses the direction of the tape and a
head is activated to play in the new direction; a push-button device
indicates the side being played by sounding from one to four tones.
The machine incorporates features of the standard cassette machine,
including controls for volume, tone, fast-forward, rewind, and vari-
able speed. For playing discs, the combination machine introduces
variable speed and the capacity to fast-forward and reverse direction
for review of information — both previously possible only for cas-
settes. A new tone arm is equipped with a device for locating the edge
of the disc or turntable and the grooves leading to the beginning of the
recording. The tone arm is removed from the disc by pressing down
rather than lifting up as on the standard disc machine: the downward
pressure retracts the needle and prevents damage to the disc. With this
tone arm, it is also possible to close the cover and move the machine
without significantly changing the needle's position on the disc.
An easy-to-operate cassette machine is also being developed as the
result of the Market Facts user study, which found that about 40
percent of patrons did not have a cassette machine, and that many
patrons wanted playback machines that were simpler to understand
and operate than the standard cassette machine. These two findings
indicated the need for a more automated machine with a minimum
number of controls. Like the combination machine, the easy machine
172
History of the Library of Congress Program
has automatic side changing through all four sides. The tape rewinds
automatically when the cassette is inserted into the tape deck; an
audible beep signals when the rewind is completed and the tape is
ready to play. There are only two main controls: a sliding switch that
starts the machine and selects the volume in one operation, and a push
button for review of information. No control is needed for ejecting the
cassette; this operation is accomplished by sliding open the deck door
and depressing the cassette.
The third new machine planned is a very small cassette machine for
patrons, such as students, for whom portability is essential. This
pocket-size machine will use rechargeable batteries and be audible
only through lightweight headphones.
Technological advances in other fields indicate that in the future
NLS will be able to provide machines that will be increasingly porta-
ble, reliable, longer lasting, and easier to operate. The key to achiev-
ing these goals is microprocessors — computer chips containing large-
scale integrated circuits. These chips can be adapted for use in NLS
machines by designing computer programs to perform functions pre-
viously handled by wired circuits. Microprocessors have the capacity
to handle complicated functions, yet they are inexpensive and occupy
little space.
Braille Materials
Braille was in 1966 and is expected to remain an important format
for the small percentage of blind people who read it. This group is
made up largely of people blind from an early age who use braille all
their lives as the basic medium of literacy. The results of NLS efforts
since 1966 to improve press-braille production have been much less
dramatic than in recorded production, which benefited more from
commercial technological advances. Only recently have possibilities
for alternatives to traditional braille books been sufficiently developed
to receive serious consideration.
Braille materials have traditionally had many drawbacks: an inter-
pointed braille page contains only one-third to one-half the material of
a print page, the pages are larger than in most print books, and the
paper must be heavier to provide a good base for the braille dots.
173
That All May Read
Therefore, the paper is costly and braille books often run to several
bulky volumes that are hard to mail and store. Also, traditional pro-
duction methods for press braille require first obtaining the print book
and then having it rekeyboarded on metal (usually zinc) plates by
stereotype-machine operators skilled in the contracted braille code.
The plates are then used on braille presses to produce multiple copies.
Correction of errors on the plates requires hammering flat the braille
dots that are incorrect and inserting corrections; when there are more
than two or three errors on a page, rekeyboarding the whole page is
faster than correcting the errors. The whole process is slow and cum-
bersome, and costs are high for the metal plates and for the personnel
to produce them.
Over the years, these problems have been addressed by NLS and by
the nonprofit organizations that produce braille books and magazines
for the NLS program as well as for other purposes, by university
research groups, and by corporations seeking applications of their
technology to braille production. NLS braille research and develop-
ment involves working extensively with these other groups, evaluat-
ing the existing technology, modifying it to NLS needs, and making
or encouraging improvements.
Early efforts were devoted to developing an alternative to the man-
ual method of embossing the plates used in the braille presses. In the
early 1960s, APH put into production an automated process employ-
ing a computer, donated by IBM, that had been programmed to pro-
duce braille symbols and contractions. The system, which is still in
operation, has a large memory capacity to deal with exceptions to
general rules and with the use of contractions for letter combinations
which depend on syllable division and sound. The print text still has to
be keypunched, but the operator does not have to know the braille
code; anyone trained in keypunching for the IBM system can apply
that knowledge to the production of braille.
In the APH system, keyboarding is done onto punch cards, which
are then proofread and corrected at a stage when changes can be made
more easily than on the metal plate. The information on the corrected
cards is then fed onto a magnetic tape used to drive the stereograph
machine and emboss the braille characters onto the metal plates. The
process works well for materials that are basically literary text, such as
174
History of the Library of Congress Program
novels and general nonfiction works. Hand stereotyping is still em-
ployed for materials where decisions must be made about formatting,
as for textbooks and books with considerable tabular material.
In 1969 an attempt was made to eliminate the keypunching step
entirely through the use of compositor tape, the same punched paper
tape used in production of the print edition. NLS, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) Sensory Aids Evaluation and Devel-
opment Center, and APH jointly sponsored an experimental produc-
tion of The East Indiaman. Besides eliminating the keypunching step,
this method held promise of more timely production because the tape
would be available before the print book was published and an earlier
start on brailling would be possible. When the book was produced by
this method, however, it was discovered that the tapes used for print
publication contained errors that later had to be corrected for both
print and braille. Because of the number of corrections, the process
was long and expensive. The cost of the project, plus the need for
further development in print-tape technology, indicated that large-
scale production by this method was not feasible at the time.
A decade later a breakthrough in the use of compositor tapes for
computer input was made with production of the April 1979 issue of
National Geographic Magazine. Since then, the magazine has con-
tinuously been produced by this method. This success was largely due
to the improved editorial accuracy of the tapes used for print produc-
tion. Only about 20 percent of print publications were produced by
compositor tapes in 1979, but the process is expected to become
widespread in the 1980s, and its potential for braille production to
increase.
The success with the magazine was followed the next year by
publication of Helen and Teacher, a dual biography of Helen Keller
and Anne Sullivan by Pulitzer Prize-winning author Joseph Lash,
written in honor of the 100th anniversary of Helen Keller's birth. The
braille edition of the 786-page print book, produced through com-
positor tapes provided prior to print publication by arrangement with
the publisher, was ready for distribution almost as soon as the print
publication. In 1982, NLS began development of a program that can
be used for production of a weekly news magazine by compositor
tapes.
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That All May Read
Another project involving computer technology was undertaken in
1972, this time testing the interface capabilities of several different
systems to reduce costs and provide faster delivery. The project was
undertaken in conjunction with MIT, with Howe Press as the braille
producer. The book. In Darkness, by Roger Bourgeon, was put into a
teletype for computer translation into braille and transmitted over
telephone lines to MIT's Braillemboss, an output device for the com-
puter. The magnetic tape required to drive the Braillemboss was con-
verted to punched paper tape for use in Howe Press's stereograph
machines, to produce the plates for multiple copies. The book was
produced by this method, but the expected savings in costs and time
did not materialize, and the process was not considered feasible for
mass production.
The serious problem of rapidly rising costs in braille production
came to a head in 1974, at the same time there was a crisis in produc-
tion of recorded materials and playback machines. The general infla-
tion led to shortages of braille paper and other materials, and there was
a lack of skilled operators for braille stereotyping. To maintain quality
and quantity as far as possible, NLS undertook long-range planning to
survey braille users about their needs and preferences, developed an
interim policy of maintaining the direct circulation of braille maga-
zines to readers at the current level of production, and sponsored a
conference with braille producers on May 17, 1974, at NLS. The
conference discussed revised draft production specifications for braille
books, which established uniformity for the product among all pro-
ducers. The specifications were the foundation for acquiring books
through competitive bidding, rather than assignment to various pro-
ducers. Responses from a sampling of braille magazine readers ob-
tained the following year showed that the decision not to reduce the
number of magazines had been an accurate judgment of patron prefer-
ences.
By the mid-1970s, all braille printing houses under contract to
produce materials for NLS had acquired some form of computer
capacity and braille translation systems, although these differed in
approach and production capabilities. Since the problem of finding
trained stereotypists was at least partially solved by the development
of computer systems, attention turned to more rapid production of the
176
History of the Library of Congress Program
metal plates themselves. In 1976, NLS contracted with Triformation
Systems, Inc. , to design a high-speed plate embosser to operate in
conjunction with computer input and braille translation systems. The
embosser would operate in a manner similar to Triformation 's line-
embossing device (LED) for on-demand paper braille; that is, it would
emboss single lines of dots across the plate rather than emboss the full
braille character at one time. The resultant PED-30 (plate embossing
device, 30 cells in width) was tested successfully at Clovernook
Printing House for the Blind in 1978 and a second machine was
installed at National Braille Press in 1979; Volunteer Services for the
Blind acquired this capacity in 1980. The PED-30 accomplishes the
plate-embossing step of braille production at from five to eight times
the speed of manual stereotyping, although some compensatory time
is required for inputting into the computer.
Researchers have continued their efforts to discover alternative
methods for input into the computer to eliminate or reduce the amount
of keyboarding needed. In the mid-1970s, Raymond Kurzweil of
Kurzweil Computer Products introduced a print-to-speech reading
machine. The machine combined a full-page optical scanner that
could recognize more than 200 print fonts with a speech synthesizer
that could translate print elements into basic sound elements and put
these sounds together into somewhat stilted but recognizable speech.
Under contract with NLS beginning in 1977, the Kurzweil company
modified the reading machine to produce a data entry machine, which
uses the scanning device for input into the computer and the standard
Duxbury Braille Translation System for conversion to braille symbols
on magnetic tape. The process does work to eliminate the keyboarding
step, but the equipment is complex and much training and practice are
required to use it.
An alternative to paper-braille books, introduced in the late 1970s,
are braille reading machines that produce what is called paperless
braille, electronic braille, or cassette braille. These portable machines
store braille characters on cassette tape and produce them for reading
as a line of braille cells created by raised pins activated by solenoid
drivers. The user controls reading speed by activating the next line
when ready. There are indexing features for finding information de-
sired. These machines have the potential to solve some longstanding
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problems associated with braille: the size and bulkiness of braille
books, plus the time and expense involved in producing them.
From 1979 to 198 1 , NLS conducted a study of these machines to
determine user reaction to the concept and to specific features of the
machines under evaluation, as well as features desirable for NLS
machines should production become feasible. Using test groups of
readers in five cities, the VSE Corporation of Alexandria, Virginia,
conducted an evaluation of two types of machines for NLS: the Elinfa
Digacassette, developed in France, and the Telesensory Systems (TSI)
VersaBraille, developed in California. (A third machine, the Brail-
locord, developed in Germany was to have been included in the tests
but had to be dropped when problems in producing digital braille
cassettes could not be solved in a timely manner.) As reading material
for the tests, five magazines that the NLS program regularly provides
in braille were translated onto cassette tape by Clovernook Printing
House for the Blind.
The study revealed that 72 percent of the participants approved of
the concept of cassette braille but that the machines would require
engineering modifications to reduce user fatigue and improve reliabil-
ity. Moreover, costs rose rather than fell during the test period. The
combination of high costs plus inadequate technology prevented
further consideration of NLS production at that time.
In 1980, a new method of embossing images was developed in
Japan. The photoembossing process uses heat and an expandable
plastic foam to reproduce print materials in a tactile form. The height
of a line or symbol is in direct relationship to the intensity of the visual
image; the darker the print image, the higher the relief. NLS acquired
the first machine outside of Japan and is exploring the application of
this process to production of braille books containing material such as
line drawings, maps, and graphs. Future possibilities include provid-
ing an alternative to Thermoforming for duplication of handcopied
books and perhaps eventually providing braille masters that could be
photographed and stored on microfiche.
With the rapid development of computer and other technology, in
1979 NLS undertook a full-scale study of the facilities and production
methods of each of the four nonprofit organizations under contract to
provide braille books and magazines for the NLS program, to discover
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History of the Library of Congress Program
areas where research efforts could best be directed. A four-volume
report of an NLS-funded project delivered on October 3 1 , 1980, by
Exotech Research and Analysis, Inc., in Gaithersburg, Maryland,
covered work-flow procedures for conversion of print text to grade 2
braille both manually and by computer; proofreading and correction
steps needed to meet current North American Braille Code require-
ments and NLS specifications; and procedures for printing, collating,
and binding. The study evaluated possible new technology and appli-
cations and identified for NLS the areas of highest cost; results show
that braille production is still labor intensive, particularly in the text
verification and correction stages.
To coordinate research efforts toward more cost-effective braille
production, NLS signed an agreement with AFB in late 1980 to pro-
vide a production center and developmental laboratory to examine
current and new technology in relation to computer production of
high-grade braille. The research effort is scheduled to run for five
years, with NLS providing the high-technology equipment and con-
tracts for short runs of braille material in immediate demand, while
AFB provides the space, personnel, and materials to operate and
maintain the test center. Initial equipment put in place in 198 1 in-
cludes the Kurzweil Data Entry Machine, the LED- 120 paper embos-
ser, and cassette braille machines. One of the first projects is to test a
new line embosser being developed to work at even greater speeds.
Other possible projects are tests of manual keyboarding devices and
further use of compositor tapes, plus the interface potential with cas-
sette braille machines. Other systems and devices to be tested are
likely to emerge in the next few years; in addition to NLS areas of
research, individual researchers and firms in this country, Canada,
Japan, and many European countries are investigating the use of com-
puters in braille production.
Other Materials
Some NLS research has involved materials and machines for read-
ing formats other than recordings or braille. None of these has as yet
proved of sufficient value to be included in the program, although
some show promise for the future. Some projects have been ahead of
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the current state of technology, as was the case with the braille ex-
periment involving compositor tape which originated in the late 1960s
but was much more successful a decade later. In other cases, the
product or process being tested did not work or was too expensive to
produce for a mass audience.
In the period immediately following the extension of service to
physically handicapped individuals, several devices — some simple,
some fairly complex — were created or tested. The simplest of these
were page turners, purchased in Fiscal 1969 but rejected for further
consideration because they did not perform as promised. A more
extensive project that was pursued from 1970 to 1976 involved "pro-
jected books," a system of filming books on an easily loaded 16-mm
cartridge for projection onto a screen or the ceiling. The package was
to include film (microfiche was also explored), the projector, and the
screen — if needed. The system was developed and field tested in 1973
at a Veterans' Administration hospital and at Walter Reed Hospital; a
prototype that was redesigned after the field test was delivered in
1975. The project was abandoned the next year with an unfavorable
evaluation of the new prototype machine. Similarly, the Ealing/Saltus
reader, which used a scroll technique for print material to overcome
the problem of turning pages, was examined, field tested, and deemed
unsuitable.
Print materials and ways to use them face a particularly severe test,
since existing legislation governing the provision of reading equip-
ment allows only for the manufacture and distribution of sound repro-
ducers and braille and recorded materials. To get support for an
amendment to the legislation, the equipment must have indisputable
value. In addition, in testimony at congressional budget hearings,
organizations of blind people have expressed considerable concern
that funds spent for print materials would not benefit the people for
whom the program was originally established and that funds should be
spent for materials usable by both blind and physically handicapped
individuals.'"'
In the late 1970s, NLS conducted the Telebook project, which
would, if feasible, have provided a different kind of reading service to
blind and physically handicapped people alike. Under contract with
NLS, the Mitre Corporation of McLean, Virginia, investigated the
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History of the Library of Congress Program
possibility of providing an on-demand recorded-book service through
use of special frequencies on FM radio or cable television channels.
Patrons could dial the service, call up a particular book where they had
stopped reading, and stop reading when they wished. Participants in
the user survey, conducted in Columbus, Ohio, were enthusiastic, but
costs of providing the recorded books, equipment, telephone lines,
operator services, and radio and television channels proved prohibi-
tive.
Automation
NLS processes millions of individual transactions each year involving
patrons, titles, playback machines, braille volumes, cassettes, and
discs. Its efforts to computerize these operations began in the early
1970s. In 1982, NLS was investigating proposals for a complete data
processing and telecommunications system (NLSNET) to link NLS,
regional libraries, multistate centers, and machine-lending agencies.
Automation of any system involves certain benefits and certain limi-
tations, but NLS finds that its computer experience overall has repre-
sented significant progress in efficiency, productivity, and quality of
service.
Production Control
The first major automation project was a production-control sys-
tem, developed in the early 1970s, which handled essentially clerical
tasks: writing orders to booksellers for the required number of print
books; requesting clearance permission from copyright holders; or-
dering masters, book cards, copies, and catalogs; compiling biblio-
graphic data; and handling orders from regional libraries for books
produced by the NLS program. By 1978, a supplementary automated
production system to track all the steps in the production process of
each book had been introduced. This system recorded the date on
which each step was completed. With these dates in its memory, the
computer could tell where books were in the production process, how
many books were in each stage of production, which booksellers or
book producers provided the best services, how NLS workers were
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performing in terms of timeliness and efficiency, and where im-
provements in the production system were indicated.
These two systems, which are still in use, operate side by side,
however, and are not coordinated with each other. NLS is developing
an enhanced system that combines all functions of the existing designs
with new activities to increase its production control ability. The new
single system, which will be part of an automated management system
permitting easy modification, may include such activities as estimat-
ing more accurately at the time a title enters production when it is
likely to be completed and shipped. Librarians need this information
to schedule the flow of books; contractors performing the various
tasks in the production process can benefit as well. With improved
estimates NLS can regulate the number of books created each year and
match production expenses with available funds.
Computer-Produced Catalogs and Bibliographies
In Fiscal 1975, NLS began a retrospective cataloging project to
ensure that all available bibliographic records were ready for conver-
sion to machine-readable form and eventual computerization. The first
product of this effort, Reading Material for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped, a computer output microfiche (COM) catalog, ap-
peared in 1977. Three cumulative, quarterly editions of the catalog
that year listed more than 15,000 annotated titles of loan materials in
braille and recorded form. After one full year of publication, the
catalog in Fiscal 1978 included 22,000 entries and was being tested
for national on-line computer distribution.
In its third year of publication, Reading Material listed 27,000
titles. Moving toward the goal of developing the microfiche catalog
into a union catalog of materials for blind and physically handicapped
people, NLS began a cooperative cataloging project with network
libraries. The automatic assembly of the catalog makes this coopera-
tion feasible. NLS has adapted the MARC (machine-readable
cataloging) system of the Library of Congress. Computer programs
quarterly manipulate these records onto magnetic tape from which a
contractor produces the microfiches that are then sent to libraries. The
catalogs are cumulative, each succeeding the previous issue, and have
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History of the Library of Congress Program
an unusually large number of "entry points." Network libraries that
produce books and are willing to lend them outside their own areas
submit cataloging forms to NLS for input to the MARC records. The
April 1979 edition of Reading Material contained the first coopera-
tively cataloged entries: about thirty books from six regional libraries.
Other agencies, such as Recording for the Blind, Inc., and the
National Library of Australia, joined the cooperative cataloging proj-
ect soon after network libraries began to participate. Because these
groups create their own machine-readable catalog records, an NLS
programming contractor converts their formats into a form compatible
with the Library of Congress computer. By January 1983, Reading
Material listed more than 57,000 entries.
Since 1980 the COM catalog database has been accessible for on-
line searching in a national information retrieval network. Biblio-
graphic Retrieval Services, Inc. (BRS). BRS processes a tape copy of
the NLS computer file through an indexing program that indexes each
significant word or number of words in all the records and makes the
records retrievable by these groups of characters, either singly or in
any desired combination. This procedure permits access to these rec-
ords by any clue available in the catalog, including the annotation.
Such an information-retrieval method not only locates all books
meeting desired criteria but also simplifies generating special bib-
liographies for individual and general use. NLS adopted these unusu-
ally extensive techniques to ensure maximum use of the necessarily
limited collection of books available to the eligible audience. This
system is searched regularly by more than a dozen network libraries,
by Recording for the Blind, and by the National Library of Australia
via satellite.
Circulation
Automated circulation in libraries for blind and physically handi-
capped readers is far more complex than the same activity in libraries
for sighted persons. In the latter case, patrons do most of the work by
selecting, checking out, and returning books. The computer keeps
track of who has each book and when it was checked out. Once a book
returns, no further record is needed. In contrast, a library for blind or
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physically handicapped persons must be able to store the identifiers of
the books a patron wants to read. According to the 198 1 Market Facts
user study, about one-third of the network's patrons prefer always to
select their own books. About one-half like a library staff member
designated a reader advisor to make their selections on the basis of
their expressed interests at least some of the time. Most patrons want
to receive a regular flow of books, either on a calendar basis or as
replacement for returned books.
When patrons need service, the computer matches patrons' personal
request lists against the available books. The checkout procedure in-
volves inserting 3" x 5" mailing cards into the books' pockets. These
mailing cards are printed for a half-day's or a full day's circulation
needs, with the cards sorted in the order in which the returned books
are temporarily stored in the mailroom. Thus, many books do not have
to be reshelved and recirculation of popular books is expedited. Addi-
tional cards are printed to meet unfilled needs in the order in which the
books are stored in the stacks. A clerk need only take a pile of these
cards and make a continuous tour of the stacks, placing cards into
pockets and loading books into mail tubs for dispatch.
When patrons rely on reader advisors to select books according to
the patrons' interests, the process is more complex but still well suited
to the computer's capabilities. All book records in the computer must
have codes indicating attributes that can be matched with patrons'
interests. On demand, the computer can display to the reader advisor
titles meeting each patron's requirement, even, if desired, excluding
from selection books that have violence, strong language, or explicit
descriptions of sex. (Tag-lines on such content included in book de-
scriptions since the early 1970s permit this exclusion.) The computer
must keep track of all books the patron has read so that a book will not
be selected repeatedly.
Over the past two decades, about twenty of the larger network
libraries have installed automated circulation systems. In most cases
these libraries have built, with the help of their parent agencies' com-
puter or their state's data processing department, systems to match
their needs.
The role of NLS in this area has been to assist libraries seeking to
automate their circulation. Experience with many of these systems
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History of the Library of Congress Program
allows NLS to provide consulting services to libraries and their ad-
ministrative agencies, usually through referrals to other libraries
whose experience most closely matches the requesting library's inter-
ests. Automated Circulation Systems in Libraries Serving the Blind
and Physically Handicapped: A Reference Guide for Planning was
prepared in 198 1 under contract to NLS by Cuadra Associates, Inc.
The book summarizes the details of nineteen NLS network automated
circulation systems and helps libraries and their computer contractors
design appropriate systems.
Interlibrary loans constitute another major aspect of circulation,
since these loans make the resources of all libraries available to each
library's patrons. Interlibrary requests are now handled mainly
through handwritten forms, but rapid exchange of such information is
one of the expectations for NLSNET.
Mailing List
Until Fiscal 1980, separate mailing lists were kept for major NLS
publications such as catalogs and newsletters, involving manual sys-
tems as well as one large computerized operation that had begun in
1968 using an outside contractor. This approach proved to be ineffi-
cient and wasteful and was replaced in 1980 by a highly complex
computerized system known as the Comprehensive Mailing List Sys-
tem (CMLS). Through CMLS, subscriber data is maintained for the
distribution of publications to individuals and organizations. Three
years after the CMLS operation began, about 300,000 names and
addresses were in the system and some 500,000 transactions a year
were being performed — adding new patrons, changing addresses, re-
moving people from the list, and adding or deleting publication sub-
scriptions so that patrons receive or stop receiving publications as
desired. About five million mailing labels are produced annually.
Each network library is responsible for keeping the name and ad-
dress of each of its active patrons and the subscriptions they are to
receive up-to-date on CMLS. In 1982, NLS began testing the merger
of mailing lists for program magazines with the listing of patrons on
CMLS. A major benefit to libraries when the magazines are merged is
that a single address change for a patron automatically applies to all of
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the individual's magazine subscriptions, in contrast to the present
system which requires a patron's address to be changed on each maga-
zine mailing list.
A significant side benefit from CMLS is the guidance it provides for
the whole NLS program. Along with names and addresses for mailing
purposes, the computer compiles other data about program use, such
as interest in braille or young-reader materials, type of machine or
machines the patron has. and publications being received. The com-
puter provides various summaries of these data so that NLS and its
libraries have a clear picture of the types of people who are using
services and can direct their programs accordingly.
Machine Accountability
The CMLS computer system provides a current descriptive picture
of NLS patrons; another computer system provides a historical picture
of NLS machines. Since the inception of the talking-book program a
network of machine-lending agencies has distributed about 700,000
playback devices to patrons and institutions where patrons are served.
These machines are U.S. government property and are worth,
cumulatively, several tens of millions of dollars.
In Fiscal 1978, in keeping with the government's requirements,
NLS introduced a sophisticated computer system to track these
machines from the factory to the time they are declared obsolete many
years later. An NLS contractor keeps a computer record of the lending
agency responsible for each machine; auditors visit these agencies
with computer lists permitting them to compare the agency's records
with those in the computer. This system allows the government to
pinpoint the location of each machine at all times.
Surplus Books
In 1980, NLS automated its cumbersome manual system for dealing
with surplus books, usually extra copies of former bestsellers. Under
the XESS System, libraries send lists of their "excess" books to an
NLS computer contractor who semiannually compiles a list of all titles
for which excess copies are available. These lists go to all network
libraries, which order books they need for their collections and return
186
History of the Library of Congress Program
the lists to the contractor. The computer then matches requests with
offerings and produces sets of mailing labels, in shelf order and by
offering library, so that each library can send its selected excess books
to the requesting libraries. The computer also generates lists of each
offering library's unwanted books, so that formal disposal procedures
can be followed.
Through this system, more than 100,000 books are "reclaimed"
each year, and shelf space is released for new books. This redistribu-
tion of books also reduces interlibrary loans by allowing libraries to
acquire books they would otherwise need to borrow.
Copyright Clearance
Whenever a print book is to be converted to braille or recorded
form, clearance for reproduction must be secured from the copyright
owner unless the title is in the public domain. NLS requests such
clearance for the books it creates and generally for network libraries
considering using volunteers for local book production; occasionally
network libraries clear such titles themselves.
In 1979, NLS automated its card file on copyright clearance rec-
ords. Information about copyright clearance requests and their results
now are stored in a computer; an updated list is produced semiannu-
ally on microfiche for distribution to all libraries. This list does not
automatically constitute approval for other libraries to reproduce
books for which clearance has been obtained, because of possible
limitations imposed by the copyright holder. However, it does provide
clues as to where certain brailled or recorded books may be found.
Libraries can then check with the organization that requested
copyright clearance about whether the book has become available,
thereby increasing their own resources for serving patrons.
NLSNET
The many existing computerized activities of network libraries,
machine-lending agencies, multistate centers, and contractors repre-
sent the exchange of millions of data items annually. Since 1979, NLS
and the four multistate centers have been linked through a telecom-
munication system for the purpose of making and responding to book
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requests, but most exchanges of information are accomplished by
paper or by voice. For example, a playback machine manufacturer
shipping a batch of machines to a lending agency sends a list of the
machines" serial numbers, with a copy going to the NLS machine
inventory contractor. The lending agency affirms receipt of the
machines by sending a marked copy of the shipping document to the
NLS contractor. The contractor must input manually to its computer
each set of data; the lending agency also must store the same informa-
tion in manual files or in its computer.
If the manufacturer sent these data in machine-readable form on
computer tape or diskette and the lending agency kept its data in a
microcomputer, manual input would be needed only once — by the
manufacturer. The data would need only to be adjusted before being
sent on, again in machine-readable form, to the other organizations
involved. The same principle can apply to shipping books for library
inventory, interlibrary loan, information about the types of repairs
performed on playback machines, transmission of statistical data, and
exchange of mailing list information.
As more information is stored in computers right from the start of
an activity, it becomes possible for data to be transmitted between
computers in forms that computers can understand — forms that do not
need to be written out and reinput. Telephone connections between
computers can effect immediate exchange of this information. Data
can be transmitted over telephone lines to a central "national" com-
puter, from which they can be transmitted and recaptured on demand
by other local computers. When speed is not essential, the mails can
be used to exchange magnetic tape or diskettes. Such a system can
facilitate the exchange of data and improve the accuracy of the data.
NLS is now working with a contractor to design such an "electronic
networking" system — NLSNET. The contractor is studying not only
the types of data exchange appropriate to the many NLS-associated
agencies, but also the types of computer hardware best suited to the
system's performance and the ways in which NLS and network li-
braries can cooperate in establishing such a project.
NLS envisions computer nodes with intercommunication
capabilities at NLS and its database and production control contrac-
tors, the multistate centers, the regional libraries, and machine-
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History of the Library of Congress Program
lending agencies that are separate from regionals, Subregional librar-
ies may eventually be included as well. Master files may be stored at
NLS contractors' facilities or on Library of Congress computers. No
single large computer is planned. The principal computerized function
at regional libraries would be circulation; at machine-lending agen-
cies, machine inventory and machine repair information; and at multi-
state centers, circulation, machine inventory, and supplies inventory
control. Master files that would supply data to these functions include
the following: in-process, master bibliographic, machine inventory,
machine-repair data. Comprehensive Mailing List System, excess-
book distribution, supplies inventory, and statistics. Other related
functions are electronic mail; copyright clearance requests and per-
missions; book, machine, and supply requests from libraries and
machine-lending agencies to multistate centers and NLS; and interli-
brary loan.
The Collection
In Fiscal 1966, when service was first extended to physically handi-
capped people, NLS was mass-producing about 400 talking books and
275 braille titles annually. In addition, that year volunteers provided
more than 500 masters for the magnetic-tape collection and 400 hand-
copied braille titles. By Fiscal 1980, titles were being added from all
sources at the rate of more than 2,300 a year, including duplicate
formats: 1 ,275 on cassettes, 350 on rigid discs, 100 on flexible discs,
300 mass-produced braille, and 300 volunteer-produced braille.
Selection
In Fiscal 1970 and 1971, 90 percent of all bestsellers were issued in
one format or another, including magnetic tape, and 90 percent of the
books later chosen by ALA for "Notable Books of 1970" and "Best
Books for Young Adults 1970" had been added to the collection.
Many authors won Pulitzer Prizes for books already selected for the
program, such as A Confederacy of Dunces, by John Kennedy Toole.
Automation improved the ability of NLS to plan collection develop-
ment by providing access to material and figures that could be manip-
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ulated in meaningful ways to analyze the collection. For example, it
became possible to print out in minutes the titles in various media in
the collection by Dewey classification. The policy established in 1953
of reissuing older titles continues; for example, in Fiscal 1980, some
2,600 titles, some of the finest work ever done for the talking-book
program, were selected for modification to current technical speci-
fications and reissue in cassette format. Priorities suggested by the ad
hoc advisory group established in Fiscal 1976 and composed of li-
brarians representing their regions, representatives of organized con-
sumer groups, and individual readers play a significant role in collec-
tion development.
The magazine program enjoyed similar expansion, from fifteen
recorded and ten braille titles, including NLS-produced music
periodicals, in 1967 to forty-four recorded and thirty-eight braille
titles in Fiscal 1982. Program magazines included Harper s, Ellery
Queen's Mystery Magazine, the Farm Journal, U.S. News and
World Report, Money, and Ranger Rick's Nature Magazine on
flexible disc; Psychology Today, Popular Mechanics, Seventeen,
Boys' Life, Blind Data Processor, and the Ladies' Home Journal in
braille.
Emphasis in the foreign-language collection fell mainly on Spanish
because it was the primary language of a large number of potential
patrons in Puerto Rico and the continental United States. Indeed, the
United States is estimated to be the fifth largest Spanish-speaking
country in the worid.^^* In Fiscal 1967, NLS filled requests from what
was available commercially; it asked network librarians to estimate
the number of potential Spanish-language readers in their areas and to
recommend titles for them; it bought braille books from Brazil and
Argentina; and it started an exchange program with Spain for taped
recordings. The following year it produced a Spanish title each month
and added Selecciones del ' 'Reader's Digest' ' to the magazine pro-
gram. Buenhoger, the Spanish-language edition of Good House-
keeping, was added in 1970. For these recorded materials, NLS
specified New World Spanish for the narration. After acquiring a
dozen classics or titles published in Spanish-speaking countries, NLS
began stressing more practical and popular titles; it found that, as
residents of this country, Hispanic patrons were more interested in
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History of the Library of Congress Program
American literature and culture. Since 1973, NLS has provided
Spanish-language application forms. An ad hoc advisory group on
Spanish, composed of network librarians, recommended a list of fifty
titles in Fiscal 1978.
NLS moved more slowly into other languages. In Fiscal 1968 it
ordered a few stories in each of the major European languages —
French, Italian, German. And in Fiscal 1971 it added to the collection
the first books in Italian and Slovenian, produced by volunteers. The
following year, NLS estimated that there were 13,000 eligible
German-speaking readers, 12,000 Italian-speaking, and 3,300
French-speaking.^'^ In 1978 a foreign-language librarian was ap-
pointed to the staff to handle the selection of titles for mass produc-
tion; to develop the special foreign-language collection, a limited
collection of recorded and brailled materials acquired from various
countries by purchase, gift, or exchange; to provide a referral service
for foreign-language materials available elsewhere; and to coordinate
the collection of such materials in the network. In 1980, the braille
catalog from the Polish Union was translated into English and braille
manuals for grade 2 French and Spanish were transcribed into print.
Despite problems with copyright clearance and delays in receipt of
materials from overseas, NLS has continued to develop its foreign-
language collection to meet increased reader demand, with the result
that in Fiscal 1982 it could offer 331 Spanish titles, as well as 17
French, 5 German, 3 Italian, and 2 Polish titles. Seventy-seven more
titles are in production. The annual goal is to mass-produce 50 titles in
the major foreign languages (Spanish, French, German, Italian,
Polish, and Portuguese) and to add 100 titles to the special collection,
which consists of 79 recorded titles.
To make every selection count and to keep readers and the network
aware of collection goals, NLS is developing a new approach to
collection building. As a first step, NLS is performing an analysis of
its collection and drafting statements of precisely what areas it will
cover and in what depth. Once NLS's collection-building goals have
been clearly delineated in this way, the second phase calls for asking
network libraries to undertake the same process. For example, a li-
brary with a large number of German-speaking patrons may wish to
focus on acquiring German-language texts. Even large volunteer or-
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That All May Read
ganizations are to be asked to define their "areas of specialization" to
complement the national program. The end result is to be a series of
unique collections constituting a broader body of literature more re-
sponsive to the needs of blind and physically handicapped readers.
ALA has established guidelines for such arrangements, which are
similar to those of university library consortiums.
Music
The extension of services to physically handicapped individuals
accelerated the addition of recorded and large-print materials to sup-
plement the braille music collection. Most of the new patrons were
visually handicapped, although some physically handicapped readers
unable to hold standard print materials were added. The first instruc-
tional music disc was circulated in Fiscal 1967. While most recorded
materials were (and are) purchased from standard commercial con-
cerns who produced them for sighted people, NLS has prepared a few
such materials for its patrons, hiring consultants to produce accordion
or recorder methods, for example. In 1982. NLS purchased National
Public Radio tapes of broadcasts on music subjects. Recorded instruc-
tional materials include interviews with musicians, lectures, analyses
of music, and instruction in music theory.
Production of large-print music scores, which are generally un-
available commercially, has gone through several phases. In the early
1970s, NLS added a few photographically enlarged scores to its col-
lection, but Sigma Alpha Iota (SAI), an international music fraternity
for women, handdrew the bulk of its music scores. In Fiscal 1976,
NLS moved from handdrawn masters to those prepared by a combina-
tion of photographic enlargements and reformatting, still enjoying the
assistance of SAI, Phi Beta Honorary Sorority, and individual volun-
teers. To provide guidance to volunteers, NLS published Large-Print
Music: An Instructional Manual in 1979. It is currently investigating
computer production of large-print music.
Initially, the emphasis in braille music production was on press
braille. For example, in Fiscal 1967. NLS helped prepare and mass-
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History of the Library of Congress Program
produced a braille instruction book for guitar and a music theory book.
In Fiscal 1968, it had press-brailled more than 140 selections required
for the National Federation of Music Clubs Junior Festival, allowing
more blind musicians to compete. The resources of the press-braille
houses for current production were so limited, however, that NLS
began developing volunteer skills to meet the demand. It published
Mary Turner de Garmo's Introduction to Braille Music Transcription
in 1970. NLS also initiated a braille music proofreading program. In
Fiscal 1973, it surveyed music braillists to determine, on the basis of
their preferences and musical backgrounds, how each could best serve
the program; roughly three-fourths of all acquisitions that year were
volunteer-produced. By 1981 all NLS-produced braille music was
handcopied by volunteers. As new catalogs of braille music scores are
located, such as those obtained from Germany, Denmark, Finland,
Norway, and Sweden in recent years, NLS also adds press-braille
music from these sources to its collection. Its research project on
computerized braille music production, begun in Fiscal 197 1 with
initial funding by the Kulas Foundation, proved impractical for any
but the simplest music and the project was discontinued.
NLS offers a number of music magazines. It compiles the irregu-
larly published Popular Music Lead Sheet, first issued in Fiscal 1978,
which typically contains melodies, lyrics, and chords for five popular
songs. It provides interested patrons with free personal subscriptions
to Overtones, produced by the New York Lighthouse for the Blind,
and to a British braille publication. Braille Musical Magazine. NLS
selects articles from a number of print periodicals and publishes them
in two bimonthly magazines, according to content: Contemporary
Sound Track, which covers pop, jazz, rock, and country music, was
first issued in 1978 and is available only on cassette; the Musical
Mainstream is primarily concerned with classical music, but it also
announces NLS music acquisitions and includes special features about
braille music notation; it is available in large print, on cassette, and in
braille. NLS records High Fidelity I Music America on flexible disc. In
1976, it began brailling and in Fiscal 1979 recording on cassette the
Music Article Guide, an annotated subject index to significant signed
articles in about 150 American music periodicals.
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That All May Read
The most significant music reference service NLS provides consists
of braining and recording on cassette requested articles listed in the
Music Article Guide. Masters of all articles reproduced are retained
for use by other patrons. To assist patrons with reading older braille
scores, NLS in Fiscal 1977 commissioned the Dictionary of Braille
Music Signs, published in large print and in braille, containing expla-
nations of the structural elements of braille music and definitions of
braille signs used in press-braille music since 1880. In addition, NLS
offers more traditional reference services, such as advising patrons
where special-format music can be purchased or referring them to
books about adapting musical instruments for their use. In Fiscal
1973, it issued its first music circular to network librarians, listing
recorded courses in the collection.
In Fiscal 1977, NLS began issuing a series of catalogs. Music and
Musicians. The catalogs are issued in large print and in the format of
the materials cataloged; thus, one of the first volumes. Instrumental
Disc Recordings Catalog, 1977, was available in large print and on
flexible disc. Seven volumes were published in less than two years.
By Fiscal 198 1 , eight of the ten catalogs in the series had been pro-
duced (and some updated), covering music scores and recorded in-
structional materials.
To foster bibliographic control and international library loan, in
1982 NLS began a survey of the braille music holdings of foreign
libraries and organizations. Conducted in cooperation with the Inter-
national Federation of Library Associations and the International As-
sociation of Music Libraries, the survey has as its basic purpose the
publication of a directory that documents the existence of braille
music collections, briefly describes their size and contents, gives in-
formation about loan policies, and provides the current address of
each library and the name of a contact person.
In addition, to provide more effective service, in 1983 NLS is
undertaking a survey of its music patrons to determine their education,
experience, and interests in music; use of the music collection and
reference services; awareness of specific services; and demographic
characteristics.
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History of the Library of Congress Program
Access to Collections
New Titles
Providing ways for blind and physically handicapped people to
access the entire collection has been an ongoing project of NLS and
has been approached in several ways. The publications most im-
mediately available to patrons are Braille Book Review and Talking
Book Topics, bimonthly magazines that list books produced since the
previous issue. Braille Book Review lists braille books and is avail-
able to patrons in large-print and braille editions; Talking Book Topics
lists recorded books and is available in large-print and flexible-disc
editions. Both magazines contain an author/title index, articles of
interest to readers, and a list of magazines available in the appropriate
format. Almost all patrons subscribe to one or more editions of these
free magazines.
When the flexible-disc version of Talking Book Topics was first
provided on an experimental basis in 1968, it was bound into the print
edition and circulated to all subscribers and was also circulated with
the combined braille edition of Talking Book Topics and Braille Book
Review. This practice continued until 1974, when the petrochemical
crisis led to shortages and rising costs. To conserve available re-
sources, NLS separated the publications into different editions and
surveyed patrons to determine whether they wanted only the print or
the recorded edition of Talking Book Topics; patrons could still have
both if desired. Braille readers were surveyed to determine the relative
usefulness of a braille version of Braille Book Review that contained
only braille titles but included the flexible-disc edition of recorded
titles and print/braille order forms for braille titles and recorded titles.
At the same time, NLS began assuming editorial control over these
publications from AFB, who had produced them since the 1930s.
Both periodicals were improved in usefulness and appearance.
Since 1978, the disc edition of Talking Book Topics has contained an
annual insert of updated Social Security information provided in
cooperation with the Social Security Administration. In 1979 optical
character recognition (OCR) characters were incorporated into the
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That All May Read
order form for easier processing by automated libraries. Both maga-
zines have won publishing awards: Braille Book Review (print and
braille editions) in 1976 from the American Institute of Graphic Arts
and a Blue Pencil Award from the National Association of Govern-
ment Communicators in the same year; Talking Book Topics in 1979
from the Washington, D.C. , Chapter of the Society for Technical
Communicators.
Catalogs and Bibliographies
In 1966 and 1967, NLS began publishing biennial catalogs of Press
Braille Adult, Talking Books Adult, and For Younger Readers, be-
ginning with books produced in 1964 and 1965. The juvenile catalog
listed both braille and recorded materials. The two adult catalogs were
the first mailed direcdy to patrons, 1 10,000 talking-book and 10,000
braille readers, all of whom thus had personal copies. For the first
time, too, a catalog of talking books was itself produced in recorded
format. Order forms were included in the next set of biennial catalogs.
The first catalog of cassette books, published in 1968, listed books
originally produced as talking books in 1964 and 1965. After cassettes
became a standard format, NLS produced Cassette Books in 197 1 ,
which listed 700 additional titles; by 1980 the sheer volume of cassette
books required annual catalogs for this format. In Fiscal 1973, NLS
produced Libros Parlantes, a catalog of 47 Spanish-language titles
with an enclosed disc narrated in Spanish. The 1980 edition of this
catalog, produced in large print and on disc, was a cumulative listing
of all 120 Spanish-language titles then available from the program.
To inform patrons about older titles in the collections, NLS com-
piles and publishes subject bibliographies. Reading for Profit was
revised and reissued as Talking Books to Profit By in Fiscal 1970. In
1972 a series of minibibliographies called "Topics in Review" began
publication as an insert in Talking Book Topics and Braille Book
Review; they contained titles in disc, cassette, and braille formats.
Some topics covered were science fiction, children's literature, and
the black experience. These minibibliographies were also recorded on
flexible discs bound into the magazines. In Fiscal 1975, NLS began
publishing major subject bibliographies regularly, ranging from chil-
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History of the Library of Congress Program
dren's books about animals and adult books about sports and home
management, science and science fiction, to biographies in the arts
and in government and politics, fiction for readers aged twelve to
twenty, bestsellers, and mysteries.
For cost savings, in Fiscal 1980, NLS began sending patrons a
reader survey/order form to allow them to indicate which catalogs and
bibliographies they wanted and in what format. In Fiscal 1982, nearly
350,000 such order forms were sent to patrons to obtain advance
subscriptions to publications in production. This system of advance
ordering, developed over a four-year period, saved approximately
$700,000 in Fiscal 1982 alone. Also in Fiscal 1982, NLS launched an
extensive research project to determine how publications designed to
communicate with patrons could be improved as to content, organiza-
tion, format, packaging and labeling, and distribution. NLS publica-
tions had never been evaluated in a structured manner and information
was not available to use in considering the relevance and validity of
consumer comments. At the same time, publications costs were ris-
ing, especially for items produced in braille and recorded formats.
NLS expects information solicited from patrons through the project's
series of surveys to be helpful in evaluating cost-effective solutions in
relation to consumer interests and needs.
Network Support Services
To facilitate reader access to its books, the national program has
progressively provided more support services to network libraries. Its
enabling legislation, the Pratt-Smoot Act, was based on the need for
centralized mass production of embossed books. Since 193 1 , judg-
ments on what other functions could or should be centralized have
varied, depending on technological advances, changing concepts of
networking, the growth in readership and the network, and other
factors.
Perhaps the most important centralized activity to provide access to
program books is the database for the COM catalog. As this catalog
incorporates more material available on loan from more sources, it
will approach the old ideal of a true union catalog of special-format
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materials for handicapped people. The fiche catalog facilitates simple
searches and interlibrary loan, while BRS makes it possible to conduct
more complex searches at patron request. It can, for example, gener-
ate a list of Newbery Award books in braille, or books on physics
produced since 1978, or one-cassette books of fiction narrated by
men. NLS encourages librarians to gain access to BRS so they can use
this one-step bibliography. The system is useful in other ways as well;
for example, print-outs of titles in process prevent duplication of effort
by network library volunteers.
The growth in readership between Fiscal 1966 and Fiscal 198 1
necessitated streamlining operations at NLS and in the field. Com-
munication between the two was improved in a multitude of ways,
including the installation of a teletypewriter in Fiscal 1968 and an IN
WATS line, available to volunteers and patrons, as well as librarians,
in Fiscal 1973. In Fiscal 1975 NLS began providing orientation ses-
sions for network staff, giving these people an opportunity to meet and
better understand the functions of various work groups. Biennial na-
tional conferences on library services for blind and physically handi-
capped individuals continued, and, since the mid-1970s, four regional
conferences have been held in the off-years.
From providing network libraries with book cards and catalog cards
to the direct mailing of catalogs, bibliographies, and current issues of
program magazines to readers, NLS has increasingly assumed respon-
sibility for network support services. It has provided local workshops
on various phases of the services, such as operating cassette duplicat-
ing equipment, producing recording masters, using volunteers,
educating the public, using BRS, and making interlibrary loans.
Working with major acoustical engineering manufacturing corpora-
tions, NLS has attempted to improve the design and function of pre-
fabricated recording studios sold network libraries and related volun-
teer organizations, begun new testing procedures to ensure studio
acoustic performance in recently installed facilities, and assisted in the
design and installation of studios. In Fiscal 1975, NLS published a
Manual for Regional Libraries and began issuing Network Bulletins,
coordinated with the manual, to give network libraries and machine-
lending agencies relevant day-to-day procedures. In the early 1980s, it
published Reaching People, a manual for network libraries on public
198
History of the Library of Congress Program
education; a Manual Circulation Handbook, with a video cassette
synopsis; a Network Library Manual, which supersedes the 1975
manual; and a procedures manual for machine-lending agencies. NLS
advises network librarians in developing sampling procedures and
data collection methods for their surveys. In 1982, NLS issued to
network librarians guidelines on establishing consumer advisory
committees.
Reference services issues circulars on reference materials network
libraries need to have and on subjects network libraries receive many
queries about, such as national organizations concerned with visually
and physically handicapped individuals. NLS supplies fact sheets,
bibliographies, and address lists for regionals to use internally or to
distribute. In Fiscal 1969, NLS assembled its first package library on
relevant subjects, such as eye diseases of the elderly. Package libraries
contain leaflets, brochures, reprints of periodical articles, brief bib-
liographies, and government documents. In Fiscal 197 1 , it issued its
first information packet for potential readers, consisting of application
forms for both individuals and institutions, basic information about
the program, and an up-to-date list of regional libraries by state. It first
published a Directory of Library Resources for the Blind and Physi-
cally Handicapped, listing the address, phone numbers, and name of
the librarian or director of regionals and machine-lending agencies, in
Fiscal 1969, adding data on services offered, book collections, and
other resources in Fiscal 197 1 . The directory is produced annually.
In addition, multistate centers were created as backup for libraries.
The first two were established in the Utah and Florida regional librar-
ies in 1974 to serve the western and southern regions, consisting of
thirteen states each. After the concept was proven in the field, two
more multistate centers were established in 1976, one in the northern
region, affiliated with Volunteer Services for the Blind in Philadel-
phia, and one in the midlands region, now affiliated with Clovernook
Home and School for the Blind in Cincinnati. Dealing with network
libraries and machine-lending agencies, multistate centers house and
lend all materials available in the national program; act as focal points
for volunteer production of materials in their areas; maintain and
circulate "special" collections of little-used materials, including back
issues of magazines, limited-edition cassettes and braille books in the
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That All May Read
national program, and books produced by volunteers in their areas;
store and supply playback machines and accessories and, to a limited
extent, replace parts or provide backup repair service for these items;
store mass-produced promotional materials, such as catalogs, bib-
liographies, and brochures; and duplicate cassettes and handcopied
braille books. Since 1977 directors of multistate centers have met
annually to deal with operational matters.
In Fiscal 1975, NLS established a formal network consultant pro-
gram and accelerated contact with field staff. Four individuals holding
key positions in the program were given the added responsibility of
serving as primary liaison with the four regions, making regular visits
to network libraries in their assigned areas and giving individualized
support and advice. The size and composition of the consultant staff
varied for the next few years as managerial personnel with needed
expertise were given part-time consultant duties. Two factors led NLS
to effect the move to full-time consultants in 1979. The demand for
service became so great that the workload was too heavy for managers
with other responsibilities. And, in view of their function of facilitat-
ing communication between regional librarians on various issues, it
became apparent that the more contacts consultants had in the field,
the more effective service they could provide.
Volunteers
Even before the NLS program was established, volunteers were mak-
ing significant contributions to provision of reading materials for blind
individuals. Volunteer activity has been an essential program element
over the years through direct services to NLS or to network libraries.
A study in 1980 showed that volunteers were providing services for
almost three-fourths of network libraries. ^^° Nationwide, nearly
1 1 ,000 volunteers were contributing an estimated 750,000 hours an-
nually in six general areas: production of materials, repair of equip-
ment, circulation and maintenance, reader services, outreach, and
administration. The study valued the net volunteer contribution (gross
worth minus administrative costs) at a minimum of $3 million.
Other major findings of the study were as follows:
About 4,500 volunteers were involved in the production of mate-
200
History of the Library of Congress Program
rials, including tape narration, monitoring, reviewing, and dupli-
cation; transcribing, proofreading, Thermoforming, binding,
labeling, and packaging braille; and transcribing large type.
3,000 Telephone Pioneers were working with network agencies to
provide most repair services for cassette and talking-book
machines. In some areas. Pioneers do repair work in patrons'
homes, making the service much more personal.
More than 450 volunteers were involved in circulation and mainte-
nance, including inspection of tapes and discs as well as general
clerical tasks connected with distribution. Inspection has re-
ceived increased emphasis in recent years to assure that patrons
receive complete books in good condition.
The most personal services provided patrons by volunteers were
reading to individuals, transporting patrons to and from the li-
brary, delivering machines and books, and providing reading
guidance. Thousands of volunteers were giving nearly 26,000
hours in the reader-services area annually.
Just under 200 volunteers were working in the areas of outreach and
administration, contributing an annual total of about 1 1 ,500
hours. Their activities included speaking to community groups,
recruiting volunteers, helping to schedule volunteer labor, and
serving as advisors to network libraries.
Because of this extensive activity, the study indicated that NLS
needed to strengthen its overall strategy for use of volunteers, give
more guidance to network libraries for establishing and managing
volunteer programs, upgrade the quality of volunteer-produced mate-
rials, provide more training materials, conduct workshops, and em-
phasize implementation of ALA standards for the use of volunteers.
NLS has developed plans to respond to these recommendations, and
preparation of a volunteer manual for use in network libraries began
shortly after the study results became available.
The primary role of NLS in relation to volunteers has been in the
area of technical training. Volunteers who produce handcopied braille
masters have been trained in braille transcription through Library of
Congress courses taken by correspondence or with local groups. Par-
ticipants are required to prepare a series of transcriptions of increasing
difficulty until they obtain the level of proficiency necessary for cer-
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That All May Read
tification. Local teachers evaluate the training transcriptions; final
transcriptions are proofread and evaluated by blind braille training
specialists on the NLS staff. Usually between 450 and 500 people a
year achieve certification in literary braille; more than 15,000 indi-
viduals have been certified over the years.
NLS also offers courses leading to certification in proofreading and
in music braille. About ten people a year per course are certified in
these more specialized subjects. The proofreading course is as old as
literary braille certification, while the music course was begun in the
late 1960s.
The most recent course to be developed covers the Nemeth code for
mathematics and science transcription, with the first mathematics
braille certificates awarded in 1980. In keeping with efforts to decen-
tralize all braille instruction, NLS instructs certified braille mathema-
tics transcribers in establishing local braille math instruction. A vid-
eotape production, "The Challenge of Braille Transcribing," issued
in 1982, is used generally to encourage sponsorship of local instruc-
tion in braille.
NLS also offers network libraries technical assistance in other areas
involving volunteers such as machine maintenance and repair, estab-
lishing and operating recording studios, evaluating audition tapes, and
book inspection. Since 1979 NLS has supplemented its personal ser-
vice with video programs on specific aspects of these areas.
To keep volunteers, volunteer groups, and network libraries in-
formed of technical information such as changes in the braille code or
suggested job descriptions for studio personnel, NLS resumed publi-
cation of a separate volunteer-oriented newsletter in 1977, after a brief
period when such information was included in News. Renamed Up-
date, the volunteer newsletter also covers volunteer activities in net-
work libraries and other groups producing special-format reading ma-
terials for blind and physically handicapped people. Volunteers Who
Produce Books serves as a referral source for librarians and patrons
with special reading needs and is indexed according to types of mate-
rial provided, for example, format and subject, such as foreign lan-
guages or mathematics braille. This directory is updated at two- or
three-year intervals as needed and is produced in both large print and
braille.
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History of the Library of Congress Program
NLS uses skilled volunteers and volunteer groups to produce some
brailled and recorded materials for the collections. About half of the
braille titles selected for production each year are handcopied books
that are mastered, duplicated, and bound through the efforts of indi-
vidual volunteers, volunteer groups, or a combination of individual
and group effort. Volunteer groups provided all the master tapes for
recorded books when the cassette format was introduced. Most re-
corded books are now professionally narrated, but some are still as-
signed to volunteer groups who have been active in the program for
many years.
In 1980, NLS established contract agreements with volunteer
groups recording books for its program, in accordance with plans to
provide uniformly high-quality material for patrons, whether recorded
professionally or by volunteers. Five groups met the NLS criteria and
were selected to produce master tapes according to NLS speci-
fications. In 1982, NLS authorized the Multistate Center for the Mid-
lands to pilot a quality-control project to review network -produced
materials for similar compliance to standards.
Concurrently, NLS began to improve coordination of activities for
handcopied braille materials. These books had been produced for
many years through a series of steps. In most cases, titles were as-
signed to sighted individuals for mastering, to blind individuals for
proofreading, and to one or more volunteer groups for duplicating and
binding. In 1981 , NLS was using the services of approximately 500
volunteer braillists, around 100 proofreaders (who are paid by the
page for their services), 5 Therm of orming groups, and 9 binding
groups. Some of the binderies did Thermoforming as well as binding
and a few groups could accomplish all steps. An evaluation of these
volunteer braille-production resources indicated that although some
titles were being produced quickly, the average handcopied braille
book took two years to produce and many books took considerably
longer, primarily because of the need for more coordination among
steps and closer monitoring of performance against time schedules.
Between December 1981 and February 1982, NLS submitted its
criteria for coordinating this production to twenty-six volunteer groups
producing braille materials in their own localities or for NLS. Only
one interested group, the Essex Chapter of the American Red Cross in
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That All May Read
East Orange, New Jersey, was qualified to coordinate all volunteer-
produced titles on a contractual basis similar to that of the recording
groups, with titles to be produced under an established delivery
schedule and performance to be monitored according to quality speci-
fications equivalent to those for press-braille materials. Individuals
and groups previously working directly with NLS were advised to
contact the Essex group for assignments. NLS expects that other
groups will qualify as volunteer coordinators in the future.
For handcopied braille, NLS selects titles that are needed for the
collection but are of more limited interest than those selected for press
braille, which averaged seventy copies per title in 1982. Since 1976,
four copies of handcopied titles have been duplicated by Thermo-
forming and a bound copy has been sent to each multistate center for
circulation upon request from braille-lending libraries. NLS could
provide these multiple copies largely because of three volunteer
groups established within prisons, one in Tennessee and two in
Maryland.
The production capacity of all three groups was used to provide the
multiple copies needed for titles already mastered, leaving other vol-
unteer groups free to devote their efforts to current production. Within
six months of the time it was founded at the Maryland Penitentiary in
1979, the Baltimore Braille Association (BBA), the newest of the
three groups, was Thermoforming and binding approximately 200
volumes of braille a week and also repairing cassette machines. With
current production now being handled by the Essex group, BBA is
used primarily to provide additional copies of books when the basic
production quantity of four copies is not sufficient to meet patron
demand. Requests for additional copies can be filled within about one
week of the request being received by NLS and the master being
provided to BBA for duplication and binding.
Volunteers provide NLS with materials other than books for the
collections. Sigma Alpha Iota, the international music fraternity, con-
tinues to work directly with NLS to produce masters for large-print
music scores. Since 1977, masters have been prepared by cutting and
gluing photoenlarged music to mats. This volunteer group has pre-
pared about 700 titles for the large-print scores collection, while only
about 100 titles have been produced commercially. Items requested by
204
History of the Library of Congress Program
other government agencies, particularly copies of legislation, are
often assigned to volunteers for brailling.
NLS anticipates that volunteers will continue to make significant
contributions in the future and will combine their skills with new
technology, especially for production of braille books, which have
become increasingly costly over the last decade. Advance planning for
mass production of braille materials includes the possibility of volun-
teer braillists sharing the use of complex and expensive equipment
such as computers and cassette-braille machines in central locations
similar to recording studios.
Public Education
The 1969 study by Nelson Associates, Inc., which recommended use
of radio and television advertising to reach potential users, was a
major turning point in the NLS public education program. Previously,
direct-mail campaigns, ties to cooperating agencies, and use of
exhibits at conferences of health, educational, and service organiza-
tions representing the interests of handicapped individuals were the
central components of NLS outreach activities. The first formal NLS
public education policy evolved in 1974 from the Nelson study. While
recognizing that reaching potential patrons through direct mail and
organizational intermediaries was useful and should be continued, the
policy was aimed at developing a more comprehensive approach to
making the eligible population aware of the national reading program.
The policy called specifically for use of the mass media by way of
radio and television public service announcements, appearances on
selected national interview shows, production of audiovisual pres-
entations to publicize services, and print materials aimed at specific
audiences.
Subsequently, NLS produced a series of printed brochures, posters,
and related information materials — color coordinated and compatible
with newly designed exhibit units — to enhance NLS national exhibit
and direct-mail efforts. The exhibit units contained a slide show,
"Sounds Like My Kind of Book," and featured life-size photographic
displays of patrons using recorded and brailled books and magazines,
and playback equipment. Network libraries also used the material at
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That All May Read
local and regional workshops, conferences, and other community
events. In addition, NLS began to promote its music services and
produced new bilingual materials to inform Spanish-speaking resi-
dents and citizens about library services.
In 1976, planning began for a national mass-media campaign, and a
pilot project was launched to determine whether potential library users
in selected areas could be reached effectively by radio and television.
(By this time, 2 million to 3 million persons were estimated to be
eligible for but not using the national program. ) Librarians were ac-
tively involved in the early planning and execution of the campaign
for several reasons: publicity would generate new library users and
thus directly affect network librarians; local resources were necessary
because of the limited budget for the project; and nationally produced
and executed campaigns had too often produced disappointing results
for other agencies.
With guidance from NLS, network librarians personally distributed
the announcements to broadcasters in their areas, stressing basic pro-
gram themes and including a toll-free number to call for more infor-
mation. By 1978, public service announcements were on the air in
seven areas where there were network libraries: Birmingham, Ala-
bama; Indianapolis, Indiana; Seattle, Washington; the Quad Cites of
Iowa and Illinois (Moline, Rock Island, Bettendorf, and Davenport);
Colorado; Maine; and South Carolina. In addition, librarians con-
ducted a range of local and regional activities to support the public
education campaign: direct mailings, appearances on radio and televi-
sion talk shows, press releases, and more, to keep the campaign
visible. The campaign was endorsed nationally by the Advertising
Council, Inc.
In the campaign areas, new readers increased by about 45 percent.
Independent evaluators estimated that public awareness increased
about 14 percent. Evaluators also concluded that local and regional
public education activities increased the rate of response and recom-
mended that NLS continue its coordinated public education pro-
gramming. In 1978, NLS won the John Cotton Dana Public Relations
Award for the pilot project.
By 1983, similar programming was in effect throughout most of the
country. Materials were aimed specifically at reaching eligible non-
206
History of the Library of Congress Program
users through friends, relatives, and professional referral sources.
Special emphasis was given to raising awareness among blacks and
individuals who were institutionalized — the largest underserved areas
of the eligible, nonusing public as identified by AFB nonuser and
Market Facts user studies. Future campaigns are expected to address
more fully the need to increase awareness among blacks as well as
Hispanics, many of whom erroneously believe, according to NLS
research, that they must read braille to use the program.
Broadcast and other campaign materials are continually updated;
network library participation is guided by NLS staff and the NLS
manual Reaching People. NLS staff continue to participate in and
exhibit at some twenty-five national conferences and conventions each
year. Direct mailings are conducted to reach doctors, nurses,
therapists, and other health professionals, as well as teachers, coun-
selors, social workers, and people in community services. Public and
special libraries nationwide receive frequent communications from
NLS about library services for blind and physically handicapped
readers.
ALA standards adopted in 1979 have helped stimulate public edu-
cation programming as an integral part of overall library service. The
result of NLS and network library efforts is a nationally coordinated
outreach program that combines the use of mass media with exhibits,
publications, speakers' bureaus, direct mailings, and general public-
ity.
International Relations
While international organizations concerned with the welfare of blind
people have played a substantial part in issues related to reading
materials for handicapped individuals, most of their efforts have been
directed toward the production of materials rather than the acquisition,
storage, and retrieval of information. Believing that improvement of
library services to handicapped people can best be addressed by an
organization of librarians, NLS in 1974 approached the International
Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) about sponsoring an or-
ganization devoted to the needs of libraries for blind or physically
handicapped patrons. In 1977, the Working Group of Libraries for the
207
That All May Read
Blind (which in 1979 was renamed the Round Table of Libraries for
the Blind) was established under the Hospital Libraries Section of
IFLA. The group meets annually to address such issues as stand-
ardizing talking-book formats, speeds, and master-recording prac-
tices; dealing with copyright problems, postal regulations, and cus-
toms laws; lessening duplication of effort among participating coun-
tries; and finding other ways to expand and improve service to blind
and physically handicapped persons worldwide.
The Working Group's first meeting, held in 1978 in Czechoslo-
vakia, was attended by more than sixty librarians, who discussed these
matters and developed long- and short-term goals for their activities.
That same year, NLS launched an international exchange program to
increase its own foreign-language collection and extend English-
language services to other countries. Excess copies of braille books
and current publications such as Talking Book Topics, Braille Book
Review, and the newsletters News and Update were offered in ex-
change for braille and recorded titles. The Central Republic Library
for the Blind in Moscow received the first exchange materials from
NLS.
Since that time, international cooperation has expanded to include
seminars and conferences in many parts of the world, with UNESCO,
IFLA, and the World Council for the Welfare of the Blind all playing
active roles. UNESCO and AFB have funded a comprehensive inter-
national directory, to be maintained by the IFLA Round Table, which
will guide information-seekers to 500 libraries and their services to
blind and physically handicapped people. The Round Table has also
begun a project to establish international bibliographic control and
aims ultimately for a global union catalog.
NLS offers special-format materials for exchange or loan, and its
cassette player can be adapted by the manufacturer for foreign use; the
manufacturer has sold more than 20,000 machines to twenty-eight
agencies in nineteen countries. NLS receives visitors from many
foreign countries and offers information and advice on implementing
comparable technology, standards, or procedures in serving blind and
physically handicapped readers.
IFLA's August 1981 conference in Leipzig, Germany, focused on
the International Year of Disabled Persons. The Round Table was
208
History of the Library of Congress Program
commended for its work in adding library service to blind persons to
the UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, in helping to establish braille
centers in Africa, and in developing an international study on
copyrights in respect to materials for the handicapped.
NLS also participated in a Japanese Library Association convention
in 198 1 . Japan's eighty-three braille libraries are independent organi-
zations that vary greatly in the facilities and services they offer.
Stimulating interest in a national library service was the primary pur-
pose of the visit by NLS staff, but discussions with Japanese man-
ufacturers of recording and playback equipment may be equally fruit-
ful.
In September 1982, the International Conference on English Braille
Grade 2, cosponsored by the Braille Authority of North America and
the Braille Authority of the United Kingdom, took place at NLS. The
purpose of the meeting was to discuss and recommend changes that
will eliminate remaining differences in the British and American sys-
tems, with regard to both readability and computer production of
braille. Delegates and observers from Australia, Canada, Hong Kong,
New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United
States established an international coordinating committee to promote
uniformity in research and code development. Made up of repre-
sentatives from these seven participating countries, the committee —
mostly through correspondence — will guide research projects, plan
for a second braille conference, and develop a more permanent body
for establishing and monitoring English braille code rules and prac-
tices. The World Council for the Welfare of the Blind was represented
at the conference by a delegate from Sweden.
NOTES
1. P.L. 71-787, March 3, 1931, chap. 400, U.S.. Stofurei a/ Large 46:1487.
Hereafter cited as Statutes,
2. Public Resolution No. 135,March4, 1931, chap. 526, SrafufM 46:1628. Dur-
ing this period, the federal fiscal year ran from July 1 to June 30. Since 1974, it has
ended September 30. Throughout this chapter, the fiscal year will be cited by the year
in which its last month falls.
3. U.S.,Library of Congress, Report of the Librarian of Congress, 1897 (Wash-
ington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, 1898), p. 39. The title of this publication
209
That All May Read
varies. Hereafter it will be cited as Annual Report. See also Annual Report, 1901 , pt.
2, p. 196, and ibid., 1946, p. 167.
4. Victoria Faber Stevenson, Etta Josselyn Giffin: Pioneer Librarian for the Blind
(Washington, D.C.: National Library for the Blind, 1959), pp. 39-40.
5. Ibid., pp. 79-84, 90; see also /4wwa/^epo/7, 1912, pp. 106-108.
6. Annual Report. 1925, pp. 140-141.
7 . Helen Keller to Emerson Palmer, secretary of the New York Board of Educa-
tion, [1909], quoted by Robert B. Irwin, /(^ / ^aw /f (New York: American Founda-
tion for the Blind, 1955), p. 14.
8. Charles W. Holmes, president of the Perkins alumni association, to American
Association of Workers for the Blind convention in 1905, quoted by Irwin in As I Saw
It, pp. 22-23.
9. Annual Report, 1920, p. 101.
10. Ibid., 1919, p. 93.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 1931, pp. 402-403.
13. AdeliaM. Hoyt, Unfolding Years: The Events of a Lifetime (Washington,
D.C.: Walter Conway, 1950), pp. 78-79, 76.
14. Frances A. Koestler, The Unseen Minority: A Social History of Blindness in
America (New York: David McKay, 1976), p. 111.
15. Annual Report, 1931, p. 403.
16. American Library Association Bulletin 1:44 (July 1907).
17. Annual Report, 1919, p. 94.
18. Koestler, Unseen Minority-, p. 1 10; for some other contributing authors, see
American Library Association Bulletin 16:221 (July 1922).
19. American Library Association Bulletin 16:220 (July 1922).
20. Annual Report, 1924, pp. 150, 152.
2 1 . Charlotte Matson, comp. , Books for Tired Eyes: A List of Books in Large
Print (Chicago: American Library Association, 1923).
22. American Library Association Bulletin 20:399 (October 1926).
23. Donald G. Patterson, "Development of the Regional Library System and
Growth of the Service," in National Conference, Library Service for the Blind:
Proceedings, November 19-20, 1951 (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress,
1952), p. 56. Hereafter cited as 1951 Conference.
24. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 112.
25. See Carol I. Alderson, "The Library and the Blind," Library Journal 65:\95
(March 1, 1940).
26. Annual Report, 1924, p. 150, quoting a contemporary AFB annual report.
27. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 82.
28 . For discussions of the development of interpointing , see Koestler, Unseen
Minority^ pp. 101- 102, 104- 107; Irwin. As I Saw It, pp. 59-65; and R. B. Irwin,
"Survey of Library Work for the Blind in the United States and Canada," American
Library Association Bulletin 23:250 (August, 1929).
29. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind:
210
History of the Library of Congress Program
Hearing on H. R.9042, 71st Cong., 2d sess., March 27, 1930, M. C. Migel.pp.
2-3, AdeliaM.Hoyt,p. 24.
30. Francis R. St. John, Survey of Library Service for the Blind. 1956 (New York:
American Foundation for the Blind, 1957), pp. 9- 10. Hereafter cited as 1956 Survey.
3 1 . House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind: Hearing on
H. R. 9042, 71st Cong., 2nd sess, March 27, 1930, Robert B. Irwin, p. 4.
32. Irwin, "Survey of Library Work for the Blind in the United States and
Canada," p. 251.
33. P.L. 58-171, April 27, 1904, chap. 1612, S^arMfei 33:313.
34. Stevenson, Etta Josselyn Giffin, p. 66.
35. Irwin, "Survey of Library Work for the Blind in the United States and
Canada," p. 251.
36. House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind: Hearing on
H. R.9042. 71stCong., 2d sess., March 27, 1930, M. C.Migel.p. 3.
37. Ibid., Robert B. Irwin, p. 5.
38. See, for example, Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 1 17-128, and Robert B.
\vn'\n. As I Saw It, pp. 72-76.
39. U.S. , House, Committee on House Administration, Subcommittee on Library
and Memorials, Talking Books for Quadriplegics and the Near Blind: Hearing on
H. R.2853, 88th Cong., 1st sess., July 30, 1963, John F. Nagle, pp. 13-14.
40. Annual Report, 1937, p. 310.
41. Ibid., 1932, p. 280.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48. Robert B. Irwin, "The Talking Book," in Blindness: Modern Approaches to
the Unseen Environment, ed. Paul A. Zahl (Princeton, N.J.; Princeton University
Press, 1950), pp. 346-347, 352.
49. For the development of the talking book, see, for example, Irwin, "The
Talking Book," pp. 347-350; Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 153, 130-135; and
Irwin, As I Saw It, pp. 86-90, 100-101.
50. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Books for the
Adult Blind: Report to Accompany H . R. 13817. 72d Cong., 2d sess., 1933, S. Rept.
1246, and U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record. 72d Cong., 2d sess.,
1933, 76, pt. 5:5521-5522.
51. P.L. 72-439, March 4, 1933, chap. 279, 5to;«re5 47:1570.
52. P.L. 73-214, May 9, 1934, chap. 264, 5;amrei 48:678.
53. Annual Report. 1935, p. 279.
54. Ibid. . 1 936, pp. 28 1-282; see also American Library Association Bulletin
30:824-826 (August, 1936).
55. P.L. 74-139, June 14, 1935, chap. 242, 5wn/fM 49:374.
Ibid.
Ibid.
, 1933, p.
183.
Ibid.
, 1932, p.
271.
Ibid.
, 1934, p.
219.
Ibid.
. 1932, p.
274.
Ibid..
, pp. 274,
278.
211
That All May Read
56 . M . C . Migel , president of AFB , to Herbert Putnam , the Librarian of Con-
grees, July 24, 1935, quoted by Koestler in Unseen Minority, p. 146; this discussion
of the origination of the WPA operation draws on pp. 144-147.
57. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 175.
58. Annual Report, 1936, pp. 292-293.
59. U.S. , Congress, House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind:
Hearing on H. R. 168, 75th Cong., 1st sess., January 23, 1937, Lucille Goldthwaite,
pp. 9-10.
60. P.L. 75-47, April 23, 1937, chap. 125, Statutes 50:12.
61. Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 149-150.
62. Annual Report. 1938, pp. 376-377.
63. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 174.
64. P.L. 76-562, June 6, 1940, chap. 255, Statutes 54:245.
65. Annual Report, 1941, p. 346; ibid., 1937, p. 296.
66. Ibid., 1937, p. 310.
67. Ibid., 1939, p. 393.
68. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 150.
69. P.L. 76- 118, June 7, 1939, chap. 191, 5ra?Mr« 53:812-813.
70. U.S. , Congress, House, Committee on the Library, Providing Books for the
Adult Blind: Report to Accompany H. R. 5136, 76th Cong. , 1st sess. , 1939, House
Rept. 456.
71. P.L. 75-523, May 16, 1938, chap. 227, 5/amfw 52:378.
72. This was not always a disadvantage. In January 1941 , a minister wrote Alex-
ander Scourby that his narration of Les Miserables was so sensitive that the reader
could "acuially feel the pulse and reality of events," as he had not when he read the
work in print. Quoted by Koestler in Unseen Minority, pp. 155-156.
73. Some years later, former presidents Harry S Truman and Herbert Hoover
recorded, respectively, parts of Year of Decision, and The Ordeal of Woodrow
Wilson. Other authors who subsequently narrated their works include John Kieran
(John Kieran' s Nature Notes, in its entirety), Bertrand Russell (Freedom Versus
Organization). William Somerset Maugham (Of Human Bondage), Christopher
Morley ( Where the Blue Begins, in its entirety), Cornelia Otis Skinner (Our Hearts
Were Young and Gay), John Mason Brown (Many a Watchful Night), Bob Hope (/
Never Left Home). Jacques Barzan (Teacher in America). John P. Marquand (The
Late George Apley), Red Barber (Rhubarb in the Catbird Seat and The Broadcas-
ters). Robert E. Sherwood (Roosevelt and Hopkins), Ogden Nash (Everyone But
Thee and Me: Ogden Nash Reads Ogden Nash), Joan Crawford (My Way of Life),
Ilka Chase (Dear Instructor: I Love Miss Tilli Bean: Worlds Apart), Victor Borge
(My Favorite Intermission). Ruth Gordon (Myself among Others), Lilli Palmer (A
Time to Embrace), and Pearl Bailey (Pearl's Kitchen).
74. Since then, many others have been added to the list, including Jose Ferrer,
Zachary Scott, Jessica Tandy, Tom Ewell, Ossie Davis, Roddy McDowell, and
Peggy Wood.
75. Annual Report. 1937, p. 309.
212
History of the Library of Congress Program
76. Ibid., 1936, p. 280.
77. Ibid., 1937, p. 284.
78. Ibid., 1932, p. 279.
79. Ibid., 1936, p. 285.
80. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 112; Bmille Book Review 3, no. 1 (January,
1934): 1.
81. So described by an executive of AFB in a letter to the service. Quoted in
Annual Report, 1936, p. 287.
82. Annual Report. 1936, p. 284.
83. Ibid., 1935, p. 280.
84. Ibid., 1937, p. 282.
85. Ibid, p. 306.
86. Ibid.. 1939, pp. 396-397; see Martin A. Roberts, "Embossed Books, Talking
Book Records, and Talking Book Machines for the Blind — Federal Contribution to
the Cultural Welfare of the Blind," in Proceedings of the Eighteenth Biennial Con-
vention of the American Association of Workers for the Blind, 1939 (n.p.), p. 122;
see also pp. 11-12.
87. Annual Report, 1939, p. 397.
88. Verner W. Clapp, "Some Problems in Library Service for the Blind," in
Proceedings of the Nineteenth Biennial Convention of the American Association of
Workers for the Blind, 1941 (n.p.), p. 49.
89. Annual Report, 1934, p. 224.
90. See, for e\dmp\e. Annual Report, 1935, p. 284; ibid., 1938, p. 361; and
Adelia M. Hoyt, "The Place and Influence of Hand-Copied Books in Libraries for the
Blind," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Biennial Convention of the American
Association of Workers for the Blind, 1937 (n.p.), p. 105.
91 . Hoyt, "The Place and Influence of Hand-Copied Books in Libraries for the
Blind," p. 103.
92. AdeliaM. Hoyt, "The Value of a Students' Library," in Proceedings of the
Sixteenth Biennial Convention of the American Association of Workers for the Blind,
1935 (n.p.), pp. 124-128.
93. Annual Report. 1937, p. 304.
94. Ibid., 1939, p. 397.
95. Ibid., 1936, p. 299.
96. House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind: Hearing on
H. R. 168, 75th Cong., 1st sess., January 23, 1937, Lucille Goldthwaite, pp. 10-11.
Goldthwaite was discussing talking books but her comments applied to braille as well;
see below.
97. Lucille A. Goldthwaite, "Book Selection," in Proceedings of the Sixteenth
Biennial Convention of the American Association of Workers for the Blind, 1935, p.
121.
98. Margaret Riddell, "A Survey of the Reading Interests of the Blind," it\ Pro-
ceedings of the Eighteenth Biennial Convention of the American Association of
Workersfor the Blind, 1939, pp. 128-133.
213
That All May Read
99. Alice Rohrback, "Report of the American Red Cross Transcribing Ac-
tivities," in Proceedings of the Eighteenth Biennial Convention of the American
Association of Workers for the Blind, 1939, p. 134.
100. Annual Report. 1934, pp. 224, 229.
101. Ibid., 1936, p. 299.
102. Ibid., 1937, p. 309.
103. Ibid., 1945, p. 108.
104. Ibid., 1937, p. 309; House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult
Blind: Hearing on H. R. 168, 75th Cong., 1st sess., January 23, 1937, p. 21.
105. House, Committee on the Library, Books for the Adult Blind: Hearing on
H. R. 168. ISlhCong., 1st sess., January 23, 1937, pp. 22-23.
106. Divisionof Books for the Adult Blind, "Annual Report for the Fiscal Year
1942-1943," typewritten archival copy. National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped, the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., p. 1. Hereaf-
ter, archival copies of the annual report of this agency, whatever name it bore at the
time, are cited as "Annual Report."
107. Ibid., p. 3
108. Ibid., p. 2.
109. P.L. 77-726, October 1 , 1942, chap. 575, Statutes 56:764.
1 10. P.L. 78-338, June 13, 1944, chap. 246, Statutes 58:276.
111. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Labor, Subcommittee on Aid to
Physically Handicapped, Aids to Physically Handicapped: Hearings Pursuant to
H. R. 45, pt. 17, Aid Rendered by the Library of Congress to the Physically Handi-
capped, 79th Cong., 1st sess., Octobers, 1945, Dr. George W. Corner, p. 1881.
112. "Annual Report," 1944, p. 9.
113. Ibid., 1942, May 27, 1942, memorandum. Among the War Imperative Books
were They Were Expendable. Into the Valley, and One World. Wendell Willkie
narrated a special introduction to the last.
114. Ibid, p. 2.
115. Annual Report, 1941, p. 43.
116. "Annual Report," 1946, p. 1.
117. Ibid., pp. 6, 14; ibid., 1947, p. 3.
118. P.L. 79-661, August 6, 1946, chap. 868, S/an/rei 60:908.
119. Annual Report. 1946, p. 260,
120. "Annual Report," 1947, p. II.
121. P.L. 80- 197, July 17, 1947, chap. 262, Statutes 6] ■.373.
122. Code of Federal Regulations ( 1952), title 44, chap. V, sec. 501 .6.
123. Koestler, Unseen Minority, p. 161.
124. See Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 161-163; two articles in 1951 Confer-
ence: Anne MacDonald, "Program of (he National Committee for Recording for the
Blind, Inc.," pp. 47-50, and Mildred C. Skinner. "Special Recording of Educational
and Professional Literature by Volunteers," pp. 51-54; as well as two articles in
Outlookfor the Blind 4\ (December 1947): Don Crawford, "Recordings for College
214
History of the Library of Congress Program
Students," pp. 284-285, and Alison B. Alessios, "The Case for Recording — As a
Librarian Sees It," pp. 286-288.
125. See Conference on Volunteer Activities in Recording and Transcribing
Books for the Blind: Proceedings, December 1-2, 1952 (Washington, D.C.: Library
of Congress, 1954): Anne MacDonald. "Current Facts about Services Available from
and Accomplishments of the National Committee for Recording for the Blind, Inc.,"
pp. 1 1-14; Anne MacDonald, "Expanding and Stimulating the Uses of Recorded
Materials." p. 29; Marjorie Postley, "Volunteer Recording Services for the Blind,"
pp. 15-16; Elsie R. Mueller, "Uses of Recordings by Students," p. 21; Mrs. W. D.
Earnest, Jr., "Exceptional Uses of Recorded Materials," p. 25; Maybelle K. Price,
"Hand Transcribing of Books into Braille by Volunteers," pp. 35-36; Pauline Pac-
kard, "Textbook Transcribing in New Jersey," pp. 38-40.
126. "Reportof the Resolutions Committee," National Conference on Volunteer
Activities, pp. 56-57.
127. House, Committee on Labor, Subcommittee on Aid to Physically Handi-
capped, Aid Rendered by the Library of Congress to the Physically Handicapped,
79th Cong., 1st sess., October 3, 1945, p. 1881.
128. Ibid., pp. 1881-1884.
129. "Annual Report," 1946, p. 14.
130. Charles H. Whittington, "Report on American Foundation for the Blind
Talking Books: Records and Machines," in 1951 Conference, p. 64; William Wat-
kins, "Talking Book Record Program: American Printing House for the Blind," in
1951 Conference, p. 68.
131. Richard K. Cook, "A Summary of Research and Development Activities on
Talking Book Systems," in 1951 Conference, p. 71 .
132. Annual Report, 1953, p. 141.
133. Koestler, Unseen Minority, pp. 170-171.
134. Patterson, "Development of the Regional Library System and Growth of the
Service," pp. 58-59. Methods of computing collection and readership statistics have
varied through the years. Contemporary figures are used in this history, although
elsewhere they may have been adjusted to make them consistent with modern usage.
135. WillardO. Youngs, "Financial Support of Regional Libraries for the Blind,"
in "Proposed Legislation Affecting Libraries and Regional Library Service for the
Blind: Proceedings of the Section of Public Library Administration, Nineteenth An-
nual Institute of Government, 1954," mimeographed (Seattle: University of Wash-
ington, Bureau of Governmental Research and Services, 1955), p. 29.
136. "Annual Report," 1950, p. 4.
137. Patterson, "Development of the Regional Library System and Growth of the
Service," pp. 58-59.
138. Charles Gallozzi, "Requirements of Space, Equipment, and Personnel in
Termsof Existing Service and Future Expansion," in 1951 Conference, p. 41.
139. U.S., Library of Congress, Division for the Blind, ProgreM/Jeporr, no. 1
(April 1952):l-3.
140. "Reportof the Resolutions Committee . . . ," in 1951 Conference, p. 81.
215
That All May Read
The Advisory Committee functioned for only a few years. Conference resolutions
discussed below may be found on pp. 81-82. See also Division for the Blind.
Progress Report, no. 1 (April 1952): 1.
141. Grace D. Lacey, "Policies and Practices in a Distributing Library for the
Blind as Illustrated by the Wayne County Library for the Blind, Detroit, Michigan,"
in Proceedings of the Eighteenth Biennial Convention of the American Association of
Workersfor the Blind, 1939, pp. 199-200.
142. "Annual Report," 1953, p. 14.
143. Division for the Blind, Progreii /Jeporr, no. 1 (April 1952); 11.
144. "Annual Report," 1954. p. 19.
145. Ibid.
146. Seventy-fourth Annual Conference Proceedings of the American Library As-
sociation, 1955 (Chicago; American Library Association, n.d), pp. 87-88.
147. See Alderson, "The Library and the Blind," p. 195.
148. YiW\iioTiiot ihthVmd. Progress Report, no. 1 (April, 1952);11.
149. "Annual Report," 1953, p. 14; Division for the Blind, Progress Report, no.
2 (July 1952);9.
150. Seventy-fourth Annual Conference Proceedings of the American Library As-
sociation, 1955, p. 87.
151. "Summary of Discussion Following Mr. Patterson's Paper," in 1951 Con-
ference, pp. 60-61.
152. Division for the Blind, Progress Report, no. 2 (July 1952), pp. 3-4.
153. Blanche P. McCrum, "Selection of Titles for Talking Book Records and
Books in Braille," in 1951 Conference, pp. 3-11.
154. Reprinted in part by St. John in 1956 Survey, pp. 72-74.
155. "Annual Report," 1952, p. 1.
156. Annual Report, 1955, p. 4.
157. M. Robert Barnett, executive director of AFB, to Francis St. John, November
23, 1955, quoted by St. John in 1956 Survey, pp. 1-3.
158. St. John, 1956 Survey, p. 3.
159. Ibid.,pp. iv-vii, 3-4.
160. Ibid., pp. 43-44.
161. Ibid, pp. 59-60.
162. Ibid., pp. 60-61.
163. Ibid., p. 51. Italics supplied.
164. Ibid., pp. 54-56.
165. Robert S. Bray, director of the Division for the Blind. Library of Congress, in
conversation with Frances Koesiler, July 22, 1971, quoted by Koestler in Unseen
Minority, p. 174.
166. St. John, 1956 Survey, p. 54.
167. Ibid., pp. 55-57.
168. Ibid., pp. 68-70.
169. Ibid, pp. 52-53.
170. Ibid., pp. 50-52.
216
History of the Library of Congress Program
171. Ibid., pp. 48-49.
172. Ibid. , p. 52; cf. Table 2. on p. 49.
173. Ibid., pp. 52,62-63.
174. Ibid., pp. 24-27.
175. Ibid., pp. 19, 100.
176. Ibid., pp. 99, 29-32, 100-101.
177. Ibid., p. 39.
178. Ibid., pp. 36-37.
179. Ibid., pp. 37-39.
180. Ibid, pp. 40-41.
181. Ibid.,pp. 5,63,20, 58,20-22.
182. Ibid., pp. 99, 104, 19-22 passim.
183. Ibid., pp. 90-96 passim; see also pp. 37, 20, 103, 108-109.
184. Ibid., pp. 7 1-89 passim, 103-104, 107.
185. P.L. 82-446, July 3, 1952, chap. 566, Statutes 66:326.
186. See in 1951 Conference: Margaret M. McDonald, "Service of Talking Book
Records and Books in Braille in the Regional Libraries'" and discussion following,
pp. 30-31; "Report of the Resolutions Committee," p. 82; and Gallozzi, "Require-
ments of Space, Equipment, and Personnel in Terms of Existing Service and Future
Expansion," p. 40.
187. Annual Report. 1953, p. 58.
188. St. John, 1956 Survey, pp. 87-88, 108.
189. Ibid., p. 104.
190. Ibid., pp. 98-100.
191. Ibid, p. 5.
192. Ibid., p. 22.
193. Ibid., p. 15.
194. Ibid., p. 23.
195. House, Committee on Labor, Subcommittee on Aid to Physically Handi-
capped, Aid Rendered by the Library of Congress to the Physically Handicapped,
79thCong., 1st sess., October 3, 1945, Dr. Luther H. Evans, p. 1861.
196. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Rules and Administration, Books for
the Adult Blind: Report to Accompany S. 2434. 85th Cong., 1st sess., 1957,S.Rept.
773.
197. P.L. 85-308, September 7, 1957, Sramrci 71:630.
198. P.L. 85-352, March 28, \95S, Statutes 72:57.
199. P.L. 85-570, July 31, 1958, Sramrej 72:451; P.L. 88-454, August 20. 1964,
Statutes 7S:54%.
200. Library of Congress, Division for the Blind, prepared with the cooperation of
the ALA Round Table on Library Service to the Blind, "Standards for Regional
Libraries for the Blind," mimeographed (Washington, DC: Division for the Blind,
1961).
201 . The COMSTAC Report: Standards for Strengthened Services, ed. Frances
A. Koestler (New York: National Accreditation Council for Agencies Serving the
217
That All May Read
Blind and Visually Handicapped, 1966), pp. 191-219; reprinted by the American
Library Association, Library Administration Division, as Standards for Library Ser-
vices for the Blind and Visually Handicapped (Chicago: American Library Associa-
tion, 1967).
202. "Annual Report," 1957, p. 6; see also Georgette M. Dorn, "Luso-Hispanic
Recordings at the Library of Congress," Latin American Research Review 14
(1979): 174.
203. English Braille. American Edition, 1959, 1972 rev. ed. (Louisville: Ameri-
can Printing House for the Blind, 1979), p. iv.
204. P.L. 87-793, October 11, 1962, 5rar«r« 76:838.
205. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Rules and Administration, Estab-
lishing in the Library of Congress a Library of Musical Scores for the Use of the
Blind: Report to Accompany S. 3408. 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962.S.Rept. 1715.
206. P.L. 87-765, October 9. 1962, Statutes 76:763.
207. P.L. 89-522, July 30, 1966, Statutes 80:330.
208. Federal Register 35, no. 126 (June 30, 1970):10589.
209. P.L. 90-206, December 16, 1967, Statutes Sl:62\-622.
210. P.L. 89-511, Title IV, July 19, 1966, S/arwrej 80:315-318.
211. P.L. 91-600, Title I, section 102(a)(4), December 30, 1970, Statutes
84:1666-1667.
212. Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped: A Surx'ey of Reader
Characteristics. Reading Interests, and Equipment Preferences: A Study of Circula-
tion Systems in Selected Regional Libraries, prepared by Nelson Associates, Inc.,
Washington, D.C. April 1969. Hereafter referred to in the text as the Nelson study.
213. A Survey to Determine the Extent of the Eligible Population Not Currently
Being Served or Not Aware of the Programs of the Library of Congress, National
Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, prepared by the American
Foundation for the Blind, New York, 1979. Hereafter referred to in the text as the
AFB nonuser study.
214. Readership Characteristics and A ititudes: Service to Blind and Physically
Handicapped Users, prepared by the Public Sector Research Group of Market Facts,
Inc., Washington, DC, September 30, 1981 (Washington, D.C: National Library
Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, 198 1 ). Hereafter referred to in the
text as the Market Facts user study.
215. American Library Association, Association of Specialized and Cooperative
Library Agencies, Standards of Service for the Library of Congress Network of
Libraries for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (Chicago: American Library
Association, 1979).
216. Jan Little to NLS, July 19, 1979.
217. See, for example, testimony by John Gashel, chief of the Washington office.
National Federation of the Blind, U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Appropria-
tions, Legislative Branch Appropriations for 1976: Hearings, 94th Cong., 1st sess.,
pt.2,pp. 1418-1423.
218. "The 1980s Will Be the Decade of the Hispanics," La Lie 9, no. 6
218
History of the Library of Congress Program
(August-September 1981): 12.
219. House, Committee on Appropriations, Legislative Branch Appropriations
for 1972: Hearings, 92d Cong., 1st sess., p. 522.
220. An Evaluation of Volunteers in the National Library Service for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped, prepared by Applied Management Science, Inc., Silver
Spring, Maryland, October 1980.
Appendix
The Library of Congress has provided library services for blind and,
since 1966, physically handicapped readers, under the administra-
tion of the following Librarians of Congress:
John Russell Young 1897-1899
Herbert Putnam 1899-1939
Archibald MacLeish 1939-1944
Luther Harris Evans 1945-1953
Lawrence Quincy Mumford 1954-1974
DanielJ. Boorstin 1975-
From 1897 to 1946, the Library of Congress provided direct library
service to blind readers through Service for the Blind under:
EttaJosselynGiffin 1897-1912
Gertrude T. Rider 1912-1925
Margaret D. McGuffey 1925-1927
Maude G.Nichols 1927-1946
In 1946, Service for the Blind, still headed by Maude Nichols, be-
came part of the Library of Congress organizational unit that in 193 1
had begun producing and distributing to regional libraries for circula-
tion reading materials for blind readers. Initially called the Project,
Books for the Blind, and now known as the National Library Service
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, this program has been
administered by:
Dr. Herman H. B. Meyer
1931-1935
Martin A. Roberts
1935-1940
Robert A. Voorus
1940-1944
Joseph P. Blickensderfer
1945-1946
Xenophon P. Smith
1946-1948
George W. Schwegmann, Jr.
1948-1951
Donald G . Patterson
1951-1957
Roberts. Bray
1957-1972
Frank Kurt Cylke
1973-
219
Part Two
Users
Hylda Kamisar
When the Library of Congress program for handicapped readers was
established in 193 1 ,' its service consisted solely of loaning embossed
books to blind adults through regional libraries. But in 1931, as today,
relatively few people used braille or other raised character systems as
a primary reading medium. The Library of Congress annual report for
1932 shows that only a small fraction of the blind adult population at
the time were borrowing embossed books. ^
Most readers in the service during the early 1930s were referred to
The Library by state offices from which blind adults were receiving
other services, for example, rehabilitation training or financial aid.
This phenomenon was probably due to the emergence of a legal stand-
ard, used for the first time in the 1930s, to define "blindness" for the
purposes of determining eligibility for state programs. While the issue
of "legal blindness" did not arise for users of the Library of Con-
gress's program as long as it was using only embossed materials —
sighted people were unlikely to divert scarce resources away from
visually impaired people — states around 1933 began to develop the
legal standard still used in much of the country today, including fed-
eral and state statutes: central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the
better eye with corrective glasses or central visual acuity of more than
20/200 if there is a visual field defect in which the peripheral field is
contracted to such an extent that the widest diameter of the visual field
subtends an angular distance no greater than twenty degrees in the
better eye. But though The Library did not at first require that patrons
meet this legal standard, many did, as they were referred from state
agencies requiring meeting the standard.
The low rate of use of braille was probably due to two related
factors: (1) the vast majority of persons who are blind become so in
adulthood, particularly in advanced age; and (2) tactile sensitivity
Hylda Kamisar is head of the Reference Section, National Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped,
Library of Congress.
221
That All May Read
tends to diminish with progressing age, and it is, therefore, often
difficult for older adults to master braille to the degree that reading is
practical.
As soon as technological developments made the talking book
feasible, legislation was passed by Congress to include sound repro-
duction records in the Library of Congress program.^ Following this
program change, many additional thousands of blind adults could
become active library users, since the recorded medium was accessi-
ble without special training or ability. An eligibility requirement, that
patrons meet the above standard of legal blindness, widely accepted
by then, was adopted to prevent sighted persons from using the talking
books meant for visually handicapped readers; the requirements re-
mained unchanged until 1952, when service to blind children was
made possible by an alteration in the basic law.^
It had long been recognized by librarians and other concerned par-
ties that the general population included a significant number of
physically handicapped individuals who were unable to use standard
printed materials for reasons other than legal blindness. This group
included persons with visual impairments that prevented them from
reading newspapers and conventional print books and those with
paralysis, palsy, missing arms or hands, or extreme weakness or re-
striction of movement that made it difficult or impossible to hold a
book or turn pages. In response to this evident need, the law govern-
ing the Library of Congress program of service to blind readers was
broadened in 1966 to include "other physically handicapped readers
certified by competent authority as unable to read normal printed
materials as a result of physical limitations, under regulations pre-
scribed by the Librarian of Congress for this service."* With this most
recent change in the enabling legislation, legal blindness ceased to be
a requisite for service; eligibility is extended to anyone unable to read
or use standard printed material because of visual or physical limita-
tions. The following categories of persons are eligible:
(1) Blind persons whose visual acuity, as determined by competent
authority, is 20/200 or less in the better eye with correcting
glasses, or whose widest diameter of visual field subtends an
angular distance no greater than 20 degrees.
(2) Persons whose visual disability, with correction and regardless
222
Users
of optical measurement, is certified by competent authority as
preventing the reading of standard printed material.
(3) Persons certified by competent authority as unable to read or
unable to use standard printed material as a result of physical
limitations.
(4) Persons certified by competent authority as having a reading
disability resulting from organic dysfunction and of sufficient
severity to prevent their reading printed material in a normal
manner.®
In addition to individuals, institutions such as nursing homes, hos-
pitals, and senior citizen centers may borrow reading materials and
sound reproducing equipment for the use of eligible residents or pa-
trons. Schools where handicapped students are enrolled may also use
library materials, as long as each eligible student is individually cer-
tified. Eligibility may be permanent or temporary, for example, while
recuperating from eye surgery.
Eligibility does not extend to individuals who are unable to read
because of educational or mental deficiencies. Nor is service available
outside the United States and its territories, except to American citi-
zens temporarily domiciled abroad, who are served directly by the
Library of Congress's National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped (NLS), in Washington, D.C.
The application process involves completion of a brief form indi-
cating the type of disability preventing the applicant from reading
standard printed material and certification by a competent authority.
Competent authority is defined to include doctors of medicine, doctors
of osteopathy, optometrists, nurses, therapists, social workers, and
librarians. In the case of reading disability from organic dysfunction,
competent authority is defined as doctors of medicine or doctors of
osteopathy, who may consult with colleagues in associated disci-
plines.
In 1932, the first year for which even partial program statistics are
available, 3,225 users were served nationally and 50,200 items were
circulated.^ In 1980, 792,980 users of braille, disc, and cassette tape
books and magazines were reported by the national network of re-
gional and subregional libraries and circulation of books and maga-
zines rose to 16,888,600. Several factors contributed to this enormous
223
That All May Read
program growth: extension of eligibility to the physically and visually
handicapped; expansion of the service network from the original
nineteen libraries to 160; development of a greatly enlarged collection
that reflects a wide range of subjects, interests, and formats; techno-
logical advancements that have speeded book production and delivery;
and an improved awareness of the program brought about by a con-
certed effort at public education. One other factor deserves mention:
the growing proportion of aged persons in the general United States
population. Diminished visual acuity is often caused by certain eye
diseases prevalent among persons in the over-sixty age category, for
example, cataract, glaucoma, and macular degeneration. Arthritis and
stroke, commonly associated with the aging process, are two other
conditions that may result in physical impairment that prevents read-
ing in the traditional way. Finding oneself cut off from such a vital
activity as reading can be a traumatic experience that talking book
service helps to alleviate.
Reader characteristics such as age, sex, educational attainment,
type of handicap or handicaps, and reading interests have major impli-
cations for collection development, equipment design, communica-
tion, and other aspects of the NLS program. On a continuing basis,
considerable effort is expended on the gathering and analysis of data
about the user population. This feedback process takes many forms,
including formal surveys of active readers. Since 1966, two full-scale
surveys have been conducted by professional survey firms under con-
tract to the Library of Congress.* These are commonly referred to as
the Nelson and the Market Facts surveys.
As Table 4- 1 indicates, 50 percent of users are sixty-five years of
age and older; more females than males are users; only 19 percent of
users are employed or in school, the rest being homemakers, retired,
or unemployed; and visual handicaps are. by far, the most prevalent
impairment, with a substantial number of patrons having multiple
handicaps. These two surveys, taken eleven years apart, show little
significant change in user characteristics, apart from an increase in the
group sixty-five years of age and over and an increase in physical and
multiple handicaps among those served.
224
TABLE 4-1
Comparison of Patron Characteristics: 1968 and 1979
Users
1968
Sample
1979
Sample
%
Characteristic:
Age
Under 14
15-24
25-44
45-64
65 and over
Sex
Male
Female
Educational attainment
Less than 8 years
High School
College
Current employment status
Employed
Student
Homemaker
Retired/unemployed
Living arrangements
Alone
With family or friends
Institution
Type of handicap
Visual only
Physical only
Multiple
5
5
12
6
14
14
26
24
43
50
46
43
54
57
29
21
42
35
40
45
12
10
14
9
20
15
53
66
17
22
76
69
7
9
72
64
4
7
25
29
Source: Market Facts Survey, 3:59, Table 37.
•Includes respondents completing graduate, professional, trade, technical, or
vocational school.
225
That All May Read
From the early years of the program until the mid-1960s, total
readership and circulation increased with few variations from a steady
growth pace. Since the expansion of the program to include handi-
capped readers other than the legally blind, growth in the number of
readers served and use of the collection has averaged well over 10
percent a year. The service network has increased eightfold. Table
4-2 summarizes program growth since 1932, when only partial statis-
tics were available.
TABLE 4-
-2
Growth of NLS Program
Number of
Total
Total
Participating
Year
Readership
Circulation
Libraries
1932
3,225
50,190
21
1940
28,900
871,900
26
1950
40,770
986,070
27
1960
63,300
1,953,250
30
1970
223,900
6,120,900
48
1980
792,980
16,888,600
160
The large increases in readership continuing throughout the 1970s
suggested that user potential was likely to number in the millions;
however, no reliable statistics existed on the total number of persons
in the United States who are unable to utilize printed material because
of visual or physical impairment. Government agencies and private
organizations which provide services of one kind or another to the
handicapped population use varying estimates of the number of per-
sons to be served, according to their own mission and objectives. Such
statistics are seldom based on actual censuses and are more likely to be
rough estimates.
Accurate statistics upon which to base projections of program
growth were not in hand until 1979, following completion of a special
study commissioned by NLS. A principal objective of this massive
study was a definitive answer to the question. How many persons in
the United States, adults and children, living in households or insti-
226
Users
tutionalized, are unable to read or use standard printed material
because of visual and/or physical impairment? This study, usually
referred to as the nonuser study, also served to document the charac-
teristics of persons eligible for NLS library services, information
which is important in the selection of reading material, determination
of reading formats, and development of ancillary equipment such as
talking-book machines.
Survey techniques used included mail questionnaires, in-depth in-
terviews by telephone and in person, and site visits to libraries and
institutions. More than 200,000 households and 4,000 institutions
were contacted initially; the final report incorporated data from more
than 7,000 individuals and 1,500 institutions. **
The potential number of users was determined to be 1 .4 persons in
100 of the household population and one person in four of the insti-
tutionalized population.'" Based on the most current census data, this
translates to 3.3 million persons six years of age and older. The
majority of eligible persons identified through the survey (7 1 percent)
possess some degree of visual impairment that prevents reading stand-
ard print; the rest (29 percent) have other physical impairments that
make using regular print materials difficult or impossible."
In 1980, the NLS program, through its network of 160 participating
libraries, reached 17 percent of this target population. By contrast, a
recent survey of book reading and library usage declared that 5 1
percent of the general adult population visited a library during the past
year.'^ Another survey of library use reported 35 percent of the total
population registered with public libraries.'^
The NLS program is viewed as a surrogate for public library service
for readers who cannot make effective use of local public library
collections because of their inability to read standard printed material.
This concept has shaped the development of the program from its
inception and is most clearly expressed in the official selection policy
for reading materials, which states, "NLS users should have access
to the same books and information made available to the nonhandi-
capped. The general reading needs of the aged, the young, the profes-
sionals, and others should be reflected proportionally in the collection
in relation to the overall readership served."
The previously mentioned survey on book reading and library usage
227
That All May Read
defines a "heavy" reader as one who reads twenty-two or more books
a year. According to the findings of this survey, 32 percent of library
users fall into this category.*^ When this same definition is applied to
users of the NLS program, it is found that the average patron is a
"heavy" reader, borrowing twenty-two books a year. Braille readers
borrow, on the average, fewer books a year than talking-book readers;
nonetheless, at seventeen books a year they exceed the "medium"
reader definition employed in the survey cited above. It is a not
uncommon occurrence for talking-book readers to borrow hundreds of
books a year. Indeed, a large segment of the clientele of libraries for
the blind and physically handicapped request that a steady flow of
books be delivered to their homes and that librarians make selections
for them, if necessary, to insure an ample supply of reading material
on hand at all times.
Reader interest and demand are subject to ongoing review by NLS
staff who are responsible for development of the book and periodical
collection. Data are accumulated from a variety of sources as to the
subjects and genres most popular with readers and areas of the collec-
tion that need strengthening. Users can be quite vocal, both in their
appreciation of services received and in their demand for reading
materials to suit their personal tastes. As a matter of policy, network
librarians forward to NLS for individual consideration any user com-
ments or requests for specific titles not in the collection. Additionally,
every year active users serve with network librarians on an advisory
committee to assist NLS in focusing on current reader interests and in
maintaining a balanced collection. As a result of recommendations
from the advisory committee and from individual users, book selec-
tion priorities are adjusted from one year to the next.
Both the Nelson survey and the Market Facts survey explored
reading preferences and information needs at great length. A compari-
son of the two surveys demonstrates that reading interests among users
of the NLS program have remained fairly constant over the past dec-
ade and differ little from the interests of public library patrons in
general. According to the Nelson survey "the four categories of
reading materials which appeal to the broadest segments of the
readership are general interest magazines; current events, news,
popular culture; pleasant novels, family stories, and light romances;
228
Users
and best sellers."'® The Market Facts survey reported essentially the
same findings, although stated in somewhat different terms: "At least
two of every five readers consider it very important to have best-
sellers, historical fiction, humor, and biography available. Another 35
percent to 43 percent of readers consider these topics somewhat im-
portant. At least one reader out of three also indicates a high degree of
interest in history, detective and mystery stories, literature, religion,
travel, and adventure stories. "" In the nonuser survey, the five most
frequently expressed users' preferences in nonfiction were religion,
current events, nature, travel, and do-it-yourself. In fiction the genres
most frequently cited as preferences were short stories, humor,
mystery /thrillers, bestsellers, and children's books.'*
As a reflection of these preferences, the NLS book collection is
particularly strong in popular fiction, biography, religion (nonsecta-
rian works), family life and health, and home management titles. The
periodical collection of about eighty titles similarly reflects these user
interests.
Popular demand is a compelling but by no means the sole determin-
ant in collection development. Classic literature and basic works in the
arts, sciences, and humanities have their place in the collection just as
they do in a typical small public library. Each year, about half the new
or replacement titles added are current publications and half are retro-
spective.
Stereotyping readers because they happen to be handicapped is a
pitfall that librarians who serve them soon learn to avoid. For exam-
ple, handicapped persons do not necessarily have an interest in read-
ing about the experiences of those with handicapping conditions. Per-
sons who are unable to see may still want to read about the visual arts
and those with severe physical limitations may request books about
skiing and other active sports. There are readers with strong negative
feelings about books containing explicit sex scenes or coarse lan-
guage, yet others just as strenuously object to having their reading
screened or labeled in any way that suggests censorship.
The current NLS budget allows for the selection and production of
approximately 1 ,950 book titles annually of the 40,000 print books
published each year in the United States. Of the 10,000 periodical
titles published in print annually only about eighty can be produced by
229
That All May Read
NLS in recorded or braille formats. Within these limitations, the book
and periodical collection must serve a readership spanning all age
groups, satisfy a wide range of interests and tastes, contain materials
of enduring value, and fill a heavy demand for bestsellers and light
reading.
Judging from the responses of active users and librarians, these
requirements are being met, with few exceptions. Textbooks,
professional-level reading material, highly technical material, and
items of purely local interest fall outside the NLS selection policy and
are not provided. Volunteers and private, nonprofit organizations
throughout the United States are active in filling these specialized
needs.
Heavily illustrated works present practical problems that may not
always be overcome and, consequently, are not selected for produc-
tion in braille or recorded format. Reference books are extremely
difficult and expensive to produce; only a few have been added to the
collection over the years. A standard reference work such as the
World Almanac might take several years to transcribe into braille and
would consist of at least fifty volumes. As a recorded book, the World
Almanac, in addition to presenting technical problems in narration,
would require a sophisticated indexing system to enable the user to
locate specific entries. Significant progress has been made recently in
solving the problem of indexing recorded books. A technique called
voice indexing has already been used to good effect with several
reference works. Index words are recorded so that they are audible
when the cassette is played in the fast-forward mode; when the desired
entry is located, the reader stops the tape and resumes play at regular
speed to hear the full entry for the key word. In the near future, it will
be possible to produce dictionaries and similar reference tools in re-
corded formats, making them accessible for the first time to persons
who must rely on this format.
Users of the NLS program are encouraged to patronize their local
public, school, and college libraries for many of their information
needs. Telephone reference service and community information and
referral services are two traditional services that handicapped persons
can take advantage of in their local areas.
The NLS program has always been quick to adopt new technologies
230
Users
with practical applications for library service to handicapped readers.
Future advances in computer technology, telecommunications, and
electronics can be expected to improve and expand information re-
sources for handicapped readers, bringing them closer to the goal of
full access to information available to all library users.
NOTES
1 . An Act to Provide Books for the Adult Blind (Pratt-Smoot Act), March 3, 193 1 ,
chapter 400, section 1 , Statutes at Large 46; 1487 . Hereafter cited as Statutes.
2. U.S., Congress, Library of Congress. Report of the Librarian of Congress,
1932 (Washington; Government Printing Office, 1932), p. 275
3. P.L. 72-439, March 4, 1933, chap. 279. Swmff^ 47; 1570.
4. P.L. 82-446, July 3, 1952, chap. 566, Statutes 66:326.
5. P.L. 89-522, July 30, 1966, ^ I. Statutes SO:330.
6. Rules and regulations relative to the loan of library materials for blind and
physically handicapped people, are published in chapter VII, Title 36, §701.10, of the
Code of Federal Regulations ( 198 1); amendments are published in the Federal Re-
gister, most recently in vol. 46, no. 191 (October 2, 1981), p. 48661.
7. Report of the Librarian of Congress. 1932. p. 27 1 .
8. Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped: A Survey of Reader
Characteristics, Reading Interests, and Equipment Preferences; A Study of Circula-
tion Systems in Selected Regional Libraries, prepared by Nelson Associates, Inc. ,
Washington, D.C. . April 1969: Readership Characteristics and Attitudes: Service to
Blind and Physically Handicapped Users, prepared by the Public Sector Research
Group of Market Facts, Inc., Washington, D.C, September 30, 1981 (Washington,
D.C: National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, 1981).
9. A Sundry to Determine the Extent of the Eligible Population Not Currently
Being Served or Not Aware of the Programs of the Library of Congress, National
Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, prepared by the American
Foundation for the Blind, New York, 1979, vol. 2, p. 57. Here after cited as the
nonuser survey.
10. Nonuser survey 2:75.
11. Nonuser survey 2:77, Table A2- 1.
12. Book Reading and Library Usage: A Study of Habits and Perceptions, con-
ducted for the American Library Association by the Gallup Organization, Inc. ,
Princeton. N. J, October 1978, p. 22.
13. The Role of Libraries in America: A Report of a Survey, conducted by the
Gallup Organization, Inc., for the Chief Officers of State Library Agencies,
Frankfort, Kentucky, 1976, p. 52.
14. U.S., Library of Congress, Division for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, Selection Policy for Reading Material.
231
That All May Read
15. Book Reading, p. 13.
16. P. 15.
17. Readership Characteristics and Attitudes, p. 3.29.
18. Nonuser survey 1:29.
232
Materials and Publishers
Mary Jack Wintle and Catherine Archer
In a complex, dynamic society, books, magazines, and a variety of
other information and media resources are vital for an individual's
knowledge of and perspective on the total environment. The reading
needs of blind and physically handicapped people are no different
from those of other citizens. Differences may exist in the formats of
material, the breadth of choice, and the methods of dissemination, but
the range of subjects covered and the uses for the materials are similar.
Handicapped people who are unable to use regular print materials in
the ordinary way have alternatives: one is a reading device, such as the
Kurzweil or the Optacon; another is braille, disc, cassette, or large-
print books.
The primary source of braille and recorded books for general read-
ing, such as the informational and recreational texts found in print in a
public library, is the Library of Congress program, funded by con-
gressional appropriations. These books are housed, circulated, and
supplemented to meet local needs by the network of libraries which
cooperate in The Library's program; most of these network libraries
are financed through state agencies.
Complementing these network materials are the transcriptions of
educational, vocational, and religious materials provided by nonprofit
agencies, community-service organizations, and church publishing
houses. Generally, these groups, operating independently of the Li-
brary of Congress program, produce titles at the individual request of
blind or physically handicapped students or professionals or for speci-
fic purposes, such as Sunday school lessons. In some areas around the
country, radio transmittal of local newspapers and other reading ma-
terials provides still another information source.
Though the blind or handicapped reader may find variety in the
special-format collections, the number of titles in any subject category
Mary Jack Wintle is assistant director of the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, the Library of Congress. Cathenne Archer is a librarian with the same organization.
233
That All May Read
is meager compared with the abundance enjoyed by those who can
read regular print. For example, in 1979 while almost 40,000 com-
mercial book titles rolled off the print presses,' an estimated total of
6,800 titles were produced in multiple copies in a format usable by
blind and physically handicapped readers.^ As compared with the
publication of over 10,000 different print magazines,^ there were
about 390 braille, recorded, and large-print magazines provided for
mass distribution. "*
General Reading Materials
The National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped (NLS), Library of Congress, provides books and magazines in
braille, cassette, and disc (rigid and flexible) editions. The supporting
philosophy in selecting these materials is that blind and physically
handicapped readers represent a cross section of the American people
and that their reading tastes are similar to those of the general public.
More specific information about the interests and needs of readers is
gained from periodic surveys and from advisory committees.
The objective is to provide material on a wide variety of subjects
and at different reading levels. Titles selected are similar to those
found in an average public library and include classics and bestsellers;
mysteries, westerns, and romances; travel guides and armchair travel
books; works on history, music, ecology, and other timely topics; and
self-help books on crafts, home maintenance, and other projects. The
collection of mass-produced books available in all network libraries
for children and adults presently consists of over 23,300 individual
titles. Magazines are drawn from those popularly available in print
and range from general to special interest.
To be considered for inclusion in the national program, current
books must be well reviewed in national book-trade publications,
library periodicals, and leading newspapers, or must appear on
bestseller lists of national circulation. Final selection is made only
after an examination of the print book. Further processing is condi-
tional upon receipt of copyright permission from the author or pub-
lisher.
The high cost of producing braille and talking books in sufficient
234
Materials and Publishers
quantity generally limits the number of titles to those which will meet
the widest reader preference. Table 5- 1 shows the average number of
titles and copies per title added annually to the national program in
recent years.
TABLE 5-1
Annual Additions to NLS Collection, by Format
Books Magazines
No. of
Avg. No.
No. of
Avg. No.
Titles
CopieslTitle
Titles
CopieslTitle
Hard disc
350
925
3
750
Flexible disc
100
3,000
39
6,500
Cassette
1,200
800
3
500
Braille
300
80
35
8,000
Total
1,950
80
When a title is selected for the program it is reproduced from cover
to cover with no omissions except what is required by the format. Dust
jacket information about the author and the book is also included. All
editorial text in magazines is reproduced; advertisements are omitted
to conform with the free mailing privilege regulations.
Most books and magazines are produced under contract according
to NLS specifications. A few titles are purchased from sources in the
United States and abroad, such as braille books from Royal National
Institute for the Blind in England. The five principal braille presses
engaged in mass-producing books and magazines under contract with
the government are:
American Printing House for the Blind (APH)
Clovernook Printing House for the Blind (CPH)
National Braille Press (NBP)
Triformation Systems, Inc. (TSI)
Volunteer Services for the Blind (VSB)
Single-copy handtranscriptions of limited-interest materials made
and reproduced in small quantities by volunteers around the country
add to the breadth and depth of The Library's braille collection. It is
through the efforts of volunteers— including those who produce re-
235
That All May Read
corded materials — that handicapped readers enjoy a wider choice of
reading materials and the opportunity to have their specialized infor-
mation needs met.
APH, the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB), and Eva-
Tone, Evatype, Inc. , a commercial firm, handle the complete man-
ufacturing process for books and magazines on disc. Cassette books
are narrated in studios at AFB, APH, and the Library of Congress, as
well as at volunteer organizations which operate under stringent re-
view procedures. Copies of these cassette books are duplicated and
packaged by AFB, APH, and several commercial firms.
Quality control procedures at NLS include review of master tapes
for recorded books and careful inspection of one copy of every braille
and recorded title before the manufacturer ships the remaining copies
to network libraries. The inspection routine includes not only record-
ing quality or braille conformance, but also such physical features as
labelling and binding. These inspections are conducted in addition to
the quality assurance procedures required of every manufacturer.
Copies of most magazines provided by NLS are mailed directly
from the producer to readers who have requested them. A few
magazines — those on cassette or copies acquired in limited numbers
from other publishers — are circulated to readers from the network
libraries. Books are shipped from the manufacturers to the cooperating
network libraries, where the books are housed when they are not being
circulated to readers. This service is completely free to the borrower.
There are no fees for postage and no charges for overdue, lost, or
damaged books.
Newly released books and new program developments are an-
nounced in two bimonthly periodicals, Talking Book Topics and
Braille Book Review, which are mailed free of charge to all blind and
physically handicapped readers who borrow books from the regional
libraries and to other interested individuals and organizations. Both
magazines are available in large print; Talking Book Topics is also
produced in a flexible disc edition and Braille Book Review in braille.
In addition, biennial catalogs and subject bibliographies are compiled
to assist patrons in making fuller use of the collections and are mailed
directly to readers who request them on an annual order form sent to
all patrons.
236
Materials and Publishers
Network libraries receive quarterly cumulative editions of a catalog
on microfiche of braille and recorded books in the program. The
database is maintained in machine-readable form which is easily up-
dated and edited. The catalog presently includes all titles mass-
produced since the early 1960s and many titles produced by volunteers
for the NLS collection. With the addition of titles produced by volun-
teers especially for network libraries, this bibliographic tool is being
expanded into a union catalog.
Recorded Reading Materials
The recordings, called talking books, distributed in 1934 to blind
persons were produced on 33 1/3-rpm hard discs approximately four-
teen years before commercial long-playing records were available to
the general public in the United States. An average book of twelve
hours' listening time required twelve twelve-inch records. The burden
of handling the heavy talking-book containers was lessened in 1962
with the introduction of 16 2/3 rpm and was further alleviated with the
introduction of the present standard 8 1/3 rpm in 1969 for magazines
and in 1973 for books. Each reduction in playing speed has also
resulted in a lowered shelf space requirement per book copy and an
approximate 25 percent savings in cost. (Some costs, such as studio
recording and containers, were unaffected.) The savings have been
TABLE 5-2
Characteristics of Disc
Formats
Hard Disc
Flexible Disc
33 '/3 rpm
ley^rpm
8/3 rpm
8 'A rpm
Recording time/
side
up to
30 minutes
up to
45 minutes
up to
88 minutes
up to
60 minutes
Record size
12"
10"
10"
9"
Number of records
for average book
12
8
4
6
Average v\/eight
in container
8.501b
5.251b
1.751b
.31 lb
237
That All May Read
used to produce additional copies of titles without concurrent budget
increases.
Flexible discs made of 8-mil plastic were introduced into the pro-
gram in 1968 for the bimonthly publication Talking Book Topics.
Beginning in 1971 their use was gradually expanded to include the
regular program magazines; two books were produced on an experi-
mental basis the following year. Flexible discs have been well ac-
cepted by readers. For large quantities (i.e., three thousand copies)
they are by far the most economical format.
Similarly, cassettes, have evolved from the commercial standard of
1 7/8-ips two-track, to 15/16-ips two-track, to the current 15/16 four-
track format.
TABLE 5-3
Characteristics of Cassette Formats
Cassettes
1 718 ips
2-track
1511 6 ips
2-track
15116 ips
4 -track
Recording time/
track
Number of cassettes
for average book
up to
45 minutes
8
up to
88 minutes
4
up to
88 minutes
2
In the future The Library's program will provide the majority of
books on cassettes and most of its magazines on flexible discs.
Bestsellers and other short-lived popular books will also be issued in
flexible-disc editions to meet the immense initial demand. A few
special-interest magazines with limited readership will be available on
cassette.
Talking books — discs and cassettes — are used by 90 percent of the
national network patrons; hard discs are the preferred medium of most
people over sixty years old. This preference influences the format
selected for most bestsellers and the proportion of light romance,
historical fiction, and biography produced in these formats. Whether a
particular work lends itself to oral presentation is also a factor to be
considered: Does the text read smoothly with no dependence on pic-
tures or graphs? If footnotes are present, can they be integrated with-
238
Materials and Publishers
out breaking the train of thought in the main body of the text? Can
appendixes and indexes be narrated meaningfully? Recorded cook-
books and similar segmented texts present problems of access that
may be resolved with the new word-indexing technique developed at
NLS.
In the recording studio the content of a book must be considered in
the selection of a narrator; for example, it would be distracting to
listen to a woman with a New England accent narrating Jimmy Car-
ter's autobiography or to a male news commentator narrating a Harle-
quin romance related in the first person by the heroine.
Titles from recent New York Times bestseller lists share the shelves
with Zane Grey westerns, Agatha Christie mysteries, Isaac Asimov
science fiction, the Bible (in various versions), Robert's Rules of
Order, Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus, and the Pulitzer Prize-
winning book about the Chesapeake Bay, Beautiful Swimmers, by
William W. Warner.
Network libraries add books and magazines of local interest to their
individual collections to supplement the titles of broad national inter-
est provided by the Library of Congress. These network additions are
usually narrated by volunteers in their homes or in recording booths at
the libraries. Other network libraries may borrow the books under
interlibrary loan procedures.
The collection of about 14,800 recorded tides for adults, about
8,000 on discs and the balance on cassettes, is comprised of approxi-
mately 60 percent fiction and 40 percent nonfiction on disc and 40
percent fiction, 60 percent nonfiction on cassette.^ Because five to ten
years is the lifespan of disc recordings, some popular older titles in the
collection are selected for reissue each year. These reissues and older
tides not previously in the collection constitute about 50 percent of the
annual selections. The rest are newly published works. The 45 or so
magazines in recorded form include American Heritage, Consumer
Reports, Good Housekeeping, National Geographic and Sports Il-
lustrated.
Braille Materials
By around 1834 Louis Braille had developed an embossed six-dot
239
That All May Read
system for writing the alphabet and numbers. This cleverly designed
system with its compact cell is flexible enough to be used for music,
math, and scientific notation and lends itself to the transcription of any
written language. It did not, however, meet with instant acceptance.
Prior to Braille's invention there were other approaches to em-
bossed printing. Raised impressions of print letters were made by a
series of closely spaced dots or solid lines; the popularity of a greatly
modified version — Moon type — continued into the twentieth century
and has only recently declined. For many years a number of dot
systems, including braille (three dots high and two dots wide), the
Barbier code (six dots high and two dots wide), and another known as
New York point (two dots high and one to four dots wide), competed
for adoption as the standard reading medium. Production of materials
in these different systems reduced the already limited number of titles
available to blind readers and invariably meant duplication of effort
among the producers. Finally, in 1918 the United States adopted
Revised Braille Grade 1 1/2 (a slightly contracted form), and in 1932
Standard English Braille became the common system throughout the
English-speaking world. This coincided with the national braille li-
brary program for adult blind readers established at the Library of
Congress by an act of Congress in 193 1 .
For braille production in the United States now, the official guide is
the Standard English Braille, American Edition (grade 2 system.
which consists of almost 200 contractions and words written in ab-
breviated form). Books produced by braille presses are interpointed
(i.e. , embossed on both sides of the page). Volunteer-produced books
with braille on only one side of the page require twice as many
volumes and thus twice as much shelf space. Even interpointed braille
is bulky. An average press-braille book consists of three volumes and
occupies a space 12" high by 12" deep by 7V2" wide. Production
costs are high and climbing. Present research and testing efforts are
exploring alternatives to reduce production costs and decrease the time
involved in getting a book to a reader. Both braille produced from
machine-readable tapes used in composition of print books and braille
reading machines which store material electronically on standard cas-
settes are being evaluated.
The typical braille reader is forty years old, college-educated, em-
240
Materials and Publishers
ployed, and more critical than the average talking-book reader. These
characteristics naturally influence the books selected for the braille
collection as does the braille format: it is more like the print-book
format than recordings are and lends itself, for example, to skimming
forward and back, to reading directions or checking specific refer-
ences, and to raised-line representations of graphs.
The collection of about 3,550 press-braille adult titles produced for
NLS consists of about 50 percent fiction and 50 percent nonfiction.® It
is supplemented by an estimated additional 12,000 titles (listed in the
microfiche catalog) which have been handtranscribed by volunteers
using a brailler (a manual typewriterlike machine with six keys which
correlate to the six-dot braille cell) or a slate and stylus (a hinged metal
form and round-tipped punch). Volunteers also produce braille trans-
criptions for network libraries and other agencies as well as for indi-
viduals.
Titles of popular and recreational interest (e.g., adventure, histori-
cal fiction and suspense) are included in the braille collection along
with instructional texts, such as McCall's Needlework and Crafts and
Modern Chess Openings, and informational texts, such as Consumer
Survival Kit and Access National Parks: A Guide for Handicapped
Visitors. Braille magazines provided in the national program include
Better Homes and Gardens, Family Health, Fortune, and Science
Digest.
Large-Type Materials
Reading materials in large type are produced by commercial pub-
lishers in typeset or photographically enlarged editions and by volun-
teers on specially adapted typewriters. For transmittal under the
free-matter provision of the postal law, 14-point type is considered the
minimum size for large type. These materials are most effectively
used when printed in bold, simple type and on contrasting nonglare
paper, for example, black ink on white paper. Wide spacing between
lines also improves readability.
The commercial market for large type is gradually expanding. The
1970 edition of Large Type Books in Print included 1 ,200 entries
from about thirty publishers. By contrast the 1976 edition included
241
That All May Read
2,552 entries from forty-four publishers, the 1978 edition 3,380 en-
tries from about seventy publishers, and the 1980 edition over 4,000
entries.
Though bookstores rarely have large-type materials in stock, they
are available on loan from public libraries or to eligible borrowers
through one of the NLS network libraries. Titles range from the A^^vv
York Times Large Type Cookbook (one volume, 18 -point type), to
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (nine volumes, 14-point type),
to adult and juvenile classics such as The Art of Loving by Erich
Fromm and Charlotte's Web by E.B. White (both in 18-point type).
Reader's Digest and a variety of other magazines are also available in
large type.
While its general collection does not contain large-type materials,
NLS produces its client-oriented publications in large type and some
of its music scores are photographically enlarged. NLS also produces
a reference circular with detailed information about sources of large-
print materials, including publishers' names and addresses.
Children's Reading Materials
Congress passed legislation extending the national library service to
blind children in 1952. Since then NLS has produced about 3,760
children's books in recorded formats and 1 . 1 15 in press braille. And
about 2,700 handcopied braille titles have been added. Children's
magazines and a wide range of music instruction materials are also
available through the program.
NLS produces approximately four hundred children's books each
year. This number includes all the books selected for children from
preschool through junior high school. The high cost of producing
braille and recorded titles limits selection to those books expected to
be very popular. To supplement the NLS collection, volunteer groups
and other agencies across the country braille and record books for
which there may be less demand.
The children's collection runs the gamut from picture books for
preschoolers to current fiction and timely nonfiction for junior high
readers. There is one crucial consideration in selecting children's
books for transcription and recording. Illustrations are an integral
242
Materials and Publishers
feature of many children's books. To be effectively brailled or re-
corded, however, the text of a book must convey its spirit without
relying on illustrations. While books for older children generally lend
themselves to transcription or narration, picture books often lose their
punch, and sometimes their meaning, without illustrations. For this
reason, picture books are scrutinized page by page during the selection
process.
The unique reading needs of very young children have prompted the
development of several special formats. One of the most popular is
PRINT/BRAILLE, which combines the complete print book with the
accompanying braille text embossed on clear acetate interleaves.
These books allow blind adults and sighted children or sighted adults
and blind children to share the reading experience. As a boon to
partially sighted readers, many of the PRINT/BRAILLE books feature
large-print text.
Stimulation of all the senses assumes great importance in the devel-
opment of disabled children because they often have a more limited
acquaintance with the world around them than their nondisabled
peers. The NLS collection includes a number of books with features
designed to tickle the fancy and sharpen the senses. The "Scratch 'n
Sniff" books intrigue both children and parents with fragrance strips
that release scents related to each story. For the sense of touch there
are stories that feature special tactile inserts, such as Pat the Bunny by
Kundhardt.
In response to requests from parents, teachers, and librarians, NLS
produces a number of books for young children in both PRINT/
BRAILLE and disc formats. The duplication allows readers to borrow
the two formats simultaneously, giving access to three media at
once — print, braille, and sound. Many of the braille and recorded
books available through NLS can be found in print on the shelves of
school and public libraries. A large number have been published in
relatively inexpensive paperback print editions. For children who ben-
efit from hearing and seeing a book at the same time, adults can
combine the recorded edition with a print copy to enhance comprehen-
sion and enjoyment.
Older children, who have a wider range of interests, abilities, and
experiences, demand diverse reading materials. Fiction for the middle
243
That All May Read
grades includes mysteries, humor, family stories, animal stories, and
science fiction. Nonfiction includes folk and fairy tales, poetry, Bible
stories, science, biographies, history, and sports. Recorded books for
children from fourth grade through junior high are produced on cas-
sette.
NLS offers an extensive magazine program to augment the book
collection. Children's magazines offered on disc during 1981 included
Ranger Rick' s Nature Magazine, Jack and Jill, and National Geo-
graphic World. Braille magazines for children included Jack and Jill,
Boys' Life, Seventeen, Children's Digest, and Teen.
To interest young readers in the program, network librarians offer a
variety of activities, including story hours, book talks, and summer
reading clubs. For example, during the heyday of television's "Six
Million Dollar Man," the New Hampshire regional library invited all
young readers to apply for a summer position as Bionic Secret Agent.
Each applicant was assigned an alphanumeric agent number and a
contact date and time. At the appointed time, the program coor-
dinator, known only as Mission Chief L, contacted each agent with an
assignment — to read and discuss three books during the summer. The
secret agents who completed their assignments received wallet-sized
certificates. Lindsay Wagner, who played Jamie Summers in the
series, signed the girls' cards. Lee Majors, the bionic man, signed the
cards for the boys who participated. Staff and readers alike found the
spirit and glamor of the program contagious.
Commercial sources offer a wealth of recorded material to comple-
ment the free recordings from the NLS network and other agencies.
Many of these recordings are packaged in appealing multimedia kits
such as discs or cassettes accompanied by books. Nearly fifty pro-
ducers of children's recordings available for purchase are listed in the
NLS reference circular entitled Subject Guide to Spoken Word Re-
cordings.
The marketplace offers an abundance of large-type books for par-
tially sighted children. The 1980 edition of Large Type Books in Print
lists more than three hundred children's books in 14-point type or
larger. Each entry indicates author, title, publisher and date of publi-
cation, type size, and grade level with the grades spanning preschool
through junior high school.
244
Materials and Publishers
To facilitate library use by partially sighted youngsters, the North
Carolina State Library compiled a selective list of books published
from the 1930s through 1977 in 16-point or larger type. Critical an-
notations evaluate style and size of type, spacing, contrast, and illus-
trations of approximately four hundred books for children from pre-
school through fourth grade. ^ Many of the titles, especially the older
ones, are widely available in the children's sections of public libraries.
Network librarians have increased readership significantly through
intensive outreach campaigns. One librarian visited, over a two-year
period, every school principal and classroom teacher in her service
area. Because neither principals nor teachers were familiar with the
program, the librarian began with the basics. She asked specifically
about students whose eyes wander, squint, or show frequent redness
and watering; she asked about students who hold books and papers
very close to their eyes. And she asked about students in wheelchairs.
Once the principals and teachers understood the criteria, they iden-
tified many eligible children who were then enrolled for service. The
very fact of having their disability acknowledged and diagnosed cor-
rectly empowered a number of these children to read even though
parents and teachers had given up on them.
Services for Students and Professionals
NLS is known to the general public as the national source of braille
and recorded books for visually and physically impaired readers. In
addition to books and magazines, NLS and cooperating network li-
braries offer a wealth of other publications and services for students
and professionals relating to handicaps and library services for handi-
capped people.
The NLS Reference Section maintains a comprehensive library of
material on blindness and other disabilities. Each year reference li-
brarians respond by letter and phone to more than twenty thousand
inquiries from around the country. The requests are researched in a
reference collection of monographs, periodicals, directories, bibliog-
raphies, brochures, and articles on all aspects of visual and physical
conditions that affect reading. In addition, the reference staff may
search the Library of Congress databases and two commercial
245
That All May Read
databases, BRS (Bibliographic Retrieval Services) and DIALOG, to
satisfy requests.
The Reference Section creates and updates many reference circulars
of special interest to students and professionals. Most of the publica-
tions are produced in braille or recorded form as well as large print.
Indispensable to active readers is the directory Volunteers Who Pro-
duce Books, a national listing by state and city of the volunteer groups
and individuals who transcribe and record books and other material.
Additional publications include the following:
National Organizations Concerned with Visually and Physically
Handicapped Persons
Magazines in Special Media
Reading Materials in Large Type
Subject Guide to Spoken Word Recordings
Attitudes Toward Handicapped People (bibliography)
Reading, Writing, and Other Communication Aids for Visually and
Physically Handicapped Persons
The NLS Consumer Relations Section, which maintains an active
liaison with users, serves as a clearinghouse for government docu-
ments in special media. NLS does not house or store any documents;
staff members simply refer inquirers to the agency that actually pub-
lishes and distributes the material.
While NLS and the cooperating network libraries provide books
and magazines for general reading, many other independent agencies
provide the textbooks essential to students from preschool to graduate
school.
The American Printing House for the Blind ( APH) is the world's
largest publishing house for the blind. Since 1879 APH has been the
official national textbook printery for blind students from preschool
through high school. APH publishes in four media — braille, large
type, disc, and cassette. It also publishes a catalog advertising such
special items as braille and large-print flash cards, braille typewriters,
sound-matching games, relief globes, wooden erector sets, textured
alphabet letters, and other educational games.
In addition to manufacUiring books and learning aids, APH also
maintains the Central Catalog of Volunteer-Produced Books. This
catalog identifies and locates more than eighty thousand books pro-
246
Materials and Publishers
duced by the many volunteer groups around the country in braille,
large-type, and recorded form. Compiled annually, the catalog is
available in book form to large institutions concerned with the visually
handicapped.
Recording for the Blind (RFB), a nonprofit voluntary organization,
lends recorded academic texts at no cost to eligible readers. RFB
serves elementary school, high school, undergraduate and graduate
students, and professionals. The RFB library offers more than sixty
thousand titles, with new books added at the rate of five thousand per
year. RFB cassettes may be played on both the Library of Congress
playback machine and a cassette player-recorder sold by the American
Printing House for the Blind. RFB issues an annual cumulative
catalog of titles.
The Braille Book Bank of the National Braille Association (NBA)
produces Thermoform copies of hand-transcribed textbooks for blind
college students and professionals at approximately the cost of the
print book. A dedicated national corps of volunteer transcribers makes
this service possible.
A unique service of NBA is the Reader-Transcriber Registry which
matches blind readers with volunteers willing to transcribe for indi-
viduals.
The Hadley School for the Blind in Winnetka, Illinois, offers free
correspondence courses in both braille and recorded form to blind and
deaf-blind children and adults. Accredited academic courses of study
range from fifth grade to college level. Hadley has also developed
correspondence courses in Bible study and a number of vocational and
avocational subjects.
Volunteer Services for the Blind (VSB) offers an array of services
for blind students and business and professional people. VSB is
equipped to produce reading matter on request in braille, disc, and
tape formats. The braille services range from volunteer-produced
handcopied braille to press braille and computer-produced braille.
While volunteers donate their time for transcription and recording,
there is a charge for materials and computer time.
The Student Division of the National Federation of the Blind (NFB)
publishes the Handbook for Blind College Students, a practical guide
based on the collective experience of student members of NFB. It
247
That All May Read
suggests a vaiiety of ways to use the academic library and the re-
habilitation and other services available to blind students nationwide.
Appended are lists of braille presses and print-book enlargement
agencies.
The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) provides a wide
variety of programs and services for visually impaired patrons, the
general public, and the professional. The foundation publishes a com-
prehensive catalog of more than four hundred aids and appliances for
people with vision problems. AFB responds annually to more than
fifty thousand requests for information from the general public, pro-
fessionals, and visually impaired people and their families. The Migel
Memorial Library, named in honor of AFB' s first president, contains
one of the world's largest print collections on blindness. Its staff and
services are available to anyone seeking information about blindness.
AFB also sponsors many publications, ranging from one-page
flyers to technical research monographs, handbooks, curriculum
guides, newsletters, and bibliographies. One of AFB "s longest-lived
publications, in its twenty-first edition in 198 1 , is the Directory of
Agencies Serving the Visually Handicapped in the U.S. This inclusive
guide, frequently updated, provides current information on five
hundred federal, public, and private agencies offering direct services
to blind and visually handicapped persons.
Music Services
NLS provides an extensive collection of music scores, textbooks, and
instructional materials in braille, large print, and on disc and cassette
recordings. This special music library was created by federal law in
1962 as part of the Library of Congress free national library program
of braille and recorded books and magazines. Although the general
reading program is administered by NLS through the nationwide net-
work of cooperating libraries, music patrons deal directly with NLS.
The NLS music collection, made up of about thirty thousand titles,
contains braille music scores and braille books about music; large-
print music scores and books about music; and recorded self-
instructional courses, books, lectures, demonstrations, and other edu-
cational materials.
248
Materials and Publishers
Braille music is the largest segment of the collection and includes
music which is standard repertoire for most instruments, librettos of
operas, vocal and choral music, and some popular music. Braille
music books include specialized music texts and other music-related
works. For example, the collection includes texts used for college-
level courses in music history, harmony and theory, sightsinging,
orchestration, form and analysis, and counterpoint.
Large-print scores, books, and a magazine are available for the
partially sighted person. Type size is a minimum of 14 point and staff
size is one inch. This collection emphasizes beginning method books
and easy pieces for playing and singing.
NLS provides discs and cassettes containing subjects including
music theory, appreciation, and history; biographical sketches of
musicians with examples of their art; interviews and master classes
with well-known musicians; instruction for voice and various instru-
ments; and music magazines. Musical recordings intended solely for
listening are not part of the collection.
Several music periodicals in special formats are available upon
request to the Music Section. The Musical Mainstream is an NLS
publication intended for the serious musician and educator. Published
bimonthly in braille, cassette, and large-print formats, it includes
reprints of articles about classical music, criticism, and instruction.
Three other digests. Contemporary Sound Track, Braille Musical
Magazine, and Overtones, are available in special formats and, in
addition, complete issues of Stereo Review and the Music Journal can
be obtained on flexible disc. Other publications include the Music
Article Guide, a commercial index of articles from selected U.S.
magazines, reproduced quarterly in braille and on cassette. The arti-
cles listed in the index are recorded or brailled upon request by pa-
trons. NLS also publishes a catalog series. Music and Musicians,
listing materials in its collection by performing medium or format.
Each catalog is available in large print and the format of the material
listed, that is, braille, disc, or cassette.
Reference assistance in all areas of music is provided to blind or
physically handicapped individuals. Information is also available to
teachers, students, and others working with handicapped musicians.
249
That All May Read
Foreign-Language Materials
NLS is building a substantial foreign-language collection through an
active exchange program with other countries and through original
selections and transcriptions. This collection offers selective coverage
of titles in foreign languages, based on the relative size of the lan-
guage group in the overall clientele. The initial emphasis of the NLS
collection has been on Spanish-language materials, ranging from
Latin American classics to translations of bestsellers and other popular
titles published in the United States. In addition, two monthly
Spanish-language magazines are produced on flexible discs and sent
directly to readers who request them: Buenhogar (Good Housekeep-
ing) and Selecciones del ' 'Reader's Digest. ' ' A German-language
magazine. Das Beste aus "Reader's Digest," is also available on
flexible disc through the NLS program.
While NLS develops a core collection of universal interest, the
network libraries through local recording programs are producing ti-
tles of local interest. NLS acts as a copyright clearing house, biblio-
graphic control center, and interlibrary loan facilitator for all
foreign-language materials produced in the network.
Recording for the Blind produces textbooks and literary works in
foreign languages in response to student requests. In addition,
foreign-language recordings are available through commercial
sources.
Religious Materials
Standard works relating to the world's major religions are provided by
NLS in proportion to demand. Among the sacred writings included are
the Koran, the Torah, and the Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant ver-
sions of the Bible. Titles of general interest about religion also can be
obtained from network libraries. For example, such titles as G. Ernest
Wright's Biblical Archeology, Norman Vincent Peale's Healing of
Sorrow, Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ, and Doris Faber's
book about the Shakers in America, The Perfect Life, are available.
An NLS reference circular lists other sources, publications, and
250
Materials and Publishers
costs. The listing includes versions of the Bible, the Book of Mormon,
the Bhagavad Gita, and other scriptural works which can be purchased
and sources for hymnbooks, Bible study guides, and other sectarian
materials.
Some of the major denominations also provide lending libraries
specifically for blind and physically handicapped members; these in-
clude the Episcopal Guild for the Blind, the Christian Record Braille
Foundation, the Jewish Braille Institute of America, the Lutheran
Library for the Blind, and the Xavier Society for the Blind. Bible
commentaries, histories, theology, and other nonsectarian material on
religions of the world will be recorded on demand by Recording for
the Blind.
Radio Reading Service
A network of autonomous radio information services has developed
around the country. Most of these services use a public radio FM
subchannel (SCA) to broadcast current and local information to blind
and physically handicapped people in their communities. Specially
tuned receivers separate the SCA signal from that of the main channel.
Some of the services transmit on the main channel of an AM or FM
station.
The first radio reading service was established in 1969 by C. Stan-
ley Potter, the director of Services to the Blind and Visually Handi-
capped in Minnesota. Today there are eighty-five stations in the
United States and Canada.
The purpose of radio reading services was succinctly stated by
Florence Grannis, former assistant director of Library and Social Ser-
vices, Iowa Commission for the Blind:
Whai should radio reading for the blind be? ... it should be a vehicle for supplying
the newspaper to the blind and physically handicapped in the community who do not
have the capacity to read it directly. What else it should be is variable depending on
the resources, needs, andcreativity of the community and the sponsors of radio
reading. Overwhelmingly, the emphasis should be on material not otherwise readily
available to this audience, and the stress, also, should be on immediacy. . . .
What should it not be? It should not be a substitute for improving the library for the
blind and physically handicapped; a means of broadcasting Library of Congress
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That All May Read
provided, recorded books; a duplication of materials available elsewhere on the air. It
should not be patronizing and demeaning; inferior in quality."
Radio Reading Services for the Blind and Other Handicapped Per-
sons was incorporated in 1977. Its purpose is to encourage the estab-
lishment and operation of reading services and to share technical,
fiscal, consumer relations, and program information.
NOTES
1 . Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information, 25th ed. (New York:
R. R. BowkerCo., 1980), pp. 446-451.
2. Derived from an informal survey of major producers in 198 1 .
3. '81 Ayer Directory of Publications (Philadelphia: Ayer Press, 198 1), p. viii.
4. U.S., Library of Congress, National Library Service for the Blind and Physi-
cally Handicapped, Magazines in Special Media. Reference Circular, no. 81-3,
August 1981.
5. Bibliographic Retrieval Service (BRS) search, September 1981.
6. Ibid.
7. North Carolina, State Library, Department of Cultural Resources, Books for
Visually Impaired Young Children: An Annotated Bibliography, compiled by Bever-
ley Simmons (Raleigh, 1978).
8. Florence Grannis, "Radio Reading Presents the Newspaper: One More Channel
to First-Class Status," Illinois Libraries 57:467 (September 1975).
252
Reading Aids and Devices
Leslie L. Clark
"Libraries exist to acquire, store and retrieve information that has
been recorded. . . . The forms of recorded knowledge range from
characters inscribed on clay tablets, handwritten manuscripts, print
sheets and volumes, and a wide range of audio-visual materials to
encoded data on machine-readable computer tapes and discs. ' ' '
Reading this preserved knowledge can be defined as a directed per-
ceptual task usually involving interpretation of an encoded repre-
sentation of oral language, which is both primary and ephemeral. The
dominance of type is such that people tend to think of reading in terms
of sight reading of print books or magazines, but, with respect to
libraries, reading in its widest meaning refers to interpreting informa-
tion stored so as to make possible public access to it at a relatively low
cost (as compared, say, to finding an expert in a given area to talk to).
The predominant method of reading involves gaze not merely vis-
ion, hence the use of the term directed above. Vision can be thought
of as a perceptual experience stemming from an unwilled detection of
the world, through signals transmitted in the visual pathway (eye,
optic nerve, visual center in the brain) whenever the eyes are open and
the individual is awake. But gaze involves more than vision. While
vision depends on feedback mechanisms to steady the image in the eye
through control of eye muscles and confirms what is seen through
comparison with past experience, gaze adds other elements to the
visual process. Among them is the state of attending to what is seen
and the important addition of feed-forward. That is, gaze involves a
silent process in the brain of expectancy or anticipatory recognition of
what is seen, driven by a conscious desire to interpret. It is gaze and
not vision that is involved in sight reading, just as it is listening and
not merely hearing that is involved in aural reading.
Ordinarily, as much information about the world is received
Professor Clark is associated with the Computer Center for the Visually Impaired, Baruch College, City
University of New York.
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That All May Read
through the visual channel as through all of the other senses com-
bined. Although experts may differ in the exact percentages involved,
it is safe to say that well over half of what people know of the world
they inhabit they know through vision; estimates nearer the 90 percent
mark are probably more nearly correct.
The impairment of vision can be measured. The usual measures are
concerned with acuity at near (reading) and far (or distant) points, size
of the visual field, field losses, and the like. A common and easily
remembered measure is the ability to read headlines in the daily news-
paper with best correction in at least one eye; this helps to define the
boundary beyond which it is said that severe visual impairment exists.
(A similar functional measure for distance vision is the ability to
recognize the face of a friend from across the street.) Physical im-
pairment can also be measured. One can specify with fair precision the
inability of a person to move hand, arm, or elbow past a certain point;
to hold a weight for a given time; or to support that weight against
some holding device for a given period of time.
The disability that results from impairment can also be measured. It
can be defined as the difference in the ability to perform a task as
compared to the performance of an unimpaired person. A print read-
ing disability may thus result from a visual impairment or a physical
impairment: in the one case, an inability to appreciate standard printed
text visually; in the other case, an inability to lift or hold a book or to
turn pages.
A handicap may be said to exist in the domain of library services if
an impaired person is hampered in reading library materials as a result
of his or her disability. If physically impaired persons cannot gain
access to a library because of their disability, they have been handi-
capped. Or if librarians perceive visually impaired people as having
characteristics not intrinsic to their disabilities, those individuals are
handicapped by the attitudes of others. On occasion, the net result is
ludicrous, as in the case of addressing remarks to a blind person
through his or her companion instead of speaking directly to the blind
person. (By the same token, the librarians' attitude is an impairment
which limits their functioning successfully, that is, disables them, in
providing services to impaired people and may handicap them in their
careers.) The process of imposing a handicap on impaired people may
254
Reading Aids and Devices
be completed by their acceptance of the validity of illogical prejudg-
ments (that is, prejudices) about their ability to perform tasks.
The job of assisting in the relief of the disability that visual or
physical impairment imposes in the task of reading ordinary books or
magazines differs somewhat, depending on the impairment. In the
case of visually but not otherwise impaired readers, it is necessary to
make up a deficit in the information accessible to them because the
primary reading input through the visual channel is deficient or miss-
ing. In the case of physically impaired readers, the enormous capacity
of the visual channel to absorb information is intact, but the ability to
manipulate the form in which text is usually presented is deficient.
These cases are different enough that we shall treat them separately. In
keeping with the greater loss of information input in the case of visual
impairment, the major part of this discussion will concern making up
information transfer for blind and visually impaired readers. We shall
then touch on the problems of those who are physically impaired.
Reading and Visually Impaired People
A few remarks on the demography of the visually impaired population
may be useful. The size of a reading public may help determine the
scope of the librarian's task. It also impacts on the degree to which
institutional response may be made to the population and the degree to
which technological development will be pursued when constraints on
funds to develop systems and the time and energy to deploy them must
be considered.
There have been a number of attempts to assay the size of the
market for products for blind and visually impaired people. All rest on
partial information, and the best one can say is that any estimate of the
population involved is apt to have quite large errors associated with it:
these errors may well approach plus or minus 40 percent. Thus, we
can estimate that there are approximately a half-million persons in the
United States who are totally blind (have no light perception), have
light perception (can tell whether light is present or absent), or have
some light projection (are able to identify the direction from which
light is coming). There is a much larger population of persons whose
visual impairment shades away from this end point toward normal
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That All May Read
vision; a reasonable estimate is that some nearly two million persons
suffer visual impairment sufficient to meet the informal functional
criteria of impairment already noted: inability to read headlines in a
newspaper and to recognize familiar faces from across the street. This
is the population, in total, that is usually understood to be blind and
visually impaired. There may be perhaps an additional three million
people whose visual impairment interferes to some degree with the
smooth accomplishment of everyday tasks at work, study, and
leisure — most of which can be corrected with relatively simple lenses,
spectacles, or contact lenses.
It may also be useful to keep in mind that the proportion of readers
in this population probably does not exceed that to be found among the
unimpaired population — defining reader as a person who has "read at
least one book either in whole or in part during the previous month. "^
That number has been variously estimated at between 5 and 10 percent
of the unimpaired population, with the probable number lying nearer
the lower figure.
Approaches to Overcoming the Visual Disability
Given the primacy of print, the reading disability of blind and
visually impaired people results in an information deficit. Thus the
task is to utilize information input opportunities through the recruit-
ment of what is left of the visual sense or through the other senses.
There appears to be much anecdotal, and some research-based, sup-
port for the notion that individuals differ in their preference for audit-
ory versus tactual presentation of information.
To overcome the disability resulting from visual impairment or
blindness, there are two principal means of accessing the standard
printed word. One is by direct access; the other is through indirect
access. This distinction emphasizes whether readers can access with-
out limitation any standard print source available in their reading
environment, even if they use a device or machine to do so. If they
can, then they have direct access to the standard print page. If another
human being is involved in the process, as in the case of the talking
book or braille materials, then the reader is said to have indirect access
to the print page. In the past, indirect access was cheaper when the
scope of literature involved was constrained. The decrease in costs of
256
Reading Aids and Devices
advanced technology may make some forms of direct access to an
essentially unlimited standard print library cheaper when the cost of
devices incorporating the technology is amortized over their useful
life. Examples of such devices are given below.
Whatever the impairment or disability in reading, it may be well to
state the obvious, namely, that making the task easier by providing
comfortable conditions will enhance reading performance. This may
be a precondition for reading for entertainment and recreation; and,
although motivation will carry the reader through when reading for
work or study, less overall effort will be required when the work-
oriented reader is comfortable. Tables and chairs arranged at heights
suitable for the equipment used, if any (see below), the provision of
cushions, and a quiet ambiance all allow best reading performance and
concentration. Lighting may also be crucial. A recent report in a
German medical journal confirms once again, as have many reports in
the past, that improvements in illumination reduce the restriction on
the reading task imposed by visual impairment; these researchers
claimed that improvements in electric lighting could result in a sharp
reduction of visual disability in reading, from 520 to 300 cases per
100,000 adults in their study.^
Direct Access Devices
Optical Low- Vision Aids. Readers with low vision are charac-
terized by reduced near visual acuity, perceptual field defects, or both.
Most attention has been focused, therefore, on enlarging the print
image by optical or electronic means. Low-vision readers usually take
the first step on their own, in the sense that managing their visual loss
means using traditional spectacles until these are no longer adequate.
A vast array of lenses from stock is available from U.S. and European
manufacturers with which eyeglass providers can aid the person with
impaired vision, ranging from the need for reading lenses with slight
magnification (and/or other corrections) up to fairly strong lenses.
Beyond this point, lenses may be custom-matched to an individual's
particular visual impairment, usually in low-vision clinics. Suitably
motivated individuals may achieve impressive results even when there
are serious field restrictions: in one case reported to the author by a
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That All May Read
New England optometrist, a young woman was able within a few
weeks to read 600 characters a minute through lenses with a magnifi-
cation of twenty times in a one-degree visual field.
In some cases, an external magnifier that is hand-held or mounted
in a stand, fitted optionally with a source of illumination, is enough to
make reading standard print routinely possible. Production-line qual-
ity control lens viewing systems, such as Masterlens, containing their
own illumination source, can be used; the advantage is that the mag-
nifier is large — some four by eight inches — and covers nearly a whole
page at once. Hand-held or stand-mounted magnifiers of 2X to 4X
power, some fitted with batteries and a high-intensity bulb, are avail-
able.'* Prices range from $4 to $30 for the simpler devices to $300 and
over for industrial grade devices.
Electronic Low-Vision Aids. When greater magnification is re-
quired, electronic aids can provide it. In the United States, systems
employing small television cameras and display monitors are known
as closed-circuit television systems (CCTVs); but the present purpose
is better served by the European designation, namely, television mag-
nifiers. The magnification range is generally from six to forty-five
times, with the region of highest quality display in the lower half of
this range. Variable magnification is achieved by using zoom lenses
like those now popular among 35-mm camera enthusiasts. These
lenses are mounted on compact television cameras that are, in turn,
mounted on upright columns fitted to a copy board. The copy board,
which holds the text, is often supplied with a so-called X/Y table
allowing free movement in the left/right and up/down directions below
the stationary lens. The text detected by the lens is displayed on a
television monitor, essentially a television screen without the tuner
used to bring in standard channels. The standard display is that of
black characters on a white background. Some readers find that this
introduces glare into their field of view. For that reason, most televi-
sion magnifiers are equipped with an image reversal, or positive/
negative, switch allowing display of white text on a black back-
ground. Prices range from about $1 ,000 to $3,000. Adaptations to
read computer terminal screens are also available.^
Many different models of television magnifiers are available, from
library-based and relatively large systems to suitcase-size portable
258
Reading Aids and Devices
units. *^ There are at present no national standards applicable to televi-
sion magnifiers for the visually impaired reader. Rather, industry
standards for qualities such as resolution, brightness of screen image,
and image magnification range prevail; and the marketplace operates
to preserve those manufacturers making units users find acceptable.
With respect to all low-vision aids, it may be useful to keep in mind
that there is one issue in the field that may impact on reader interest
and ability to read — that of training to criteria in performance with an
optical aid, especially for those people using powerful optical aids for
the first time. Perhaps the best developed form of this training can be
found in Norway, where the Hjaelmiddlesentralen, or sensory aids
center, is a focus for a series of links to the medical, educational, and
rehabilitation systems, and the individual consumer is tracked through
his home, work, and leisure environments until both he and the center
counsellor are satisfied that he performs as well as possible with the
aid. The other extreme is found in one experimental program in Bri-
tain, in which the individual is fitted with an optical aid, given about
an hour's instruction and experience with the aid, and urged to go out
and use the aid in all his normal environments. Curiously enough,
both systems appear to work, which may only be another way of
saying that there is not sufficient data to say that one scheme works
better than the other, or that criteria of performance that are optimally
relevant to the task to be measured have not yet been identified.
Large Print. Discussion so far has focused on devices and systems
that allow unrestricted access to standard-print library collections.
Books in which the type has been made large in the production process
are, essentially, preprocessed to provide a larger image for the im-
paired eye to detect. (Books can be produced in large and standard-
size type simultaneously. Those that are reprinted at a later date in
large type may be considered quasi direct-access aids, inasmuch as
human intervention is necessary between the original standard-print
edition and the reprint accessible to those who are visually impaired.)
Curiously, large-print books have never enjoyed a wide audience of
users. One can only suspect that for those used to handling ordinary
print texts, large-print books seem expensive, unwieldy in size, and
relatively limited in availability of titles.''
Print-to-Raised-Character and Print-to-Speech Devices. The Op-
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That All May Read
tacon Reading Machine is a sophisticated embodiment of advanced
technology and fabrication techniques that provides direct access to
print materials. Developed jointly by John Linville, chairman of the
Department of Electrical Engineering of Stanford University, and
James C. Bliss, of the Stanford Research Institute and, later, president
of Telesensory Systems, Inc., in Palo Alto, the device is a battery-
powered, book-sized unit containing a vibrotactile display and a
reading probe or wand connected by a thin wire to the display unit.
The probe is drawn across a line of print text — freehand or with the
help of a guide rod. An array of light-sensitive cells detects the shape
of the print character, and electrical impulses corresponding to the
detection are sent to the display unit. There, the signals are used to
activate a drive unit in which electrical impulses cause a crystal to
vibrate — ^just the reverse of the way in which the older crystal pickup
worked in an inexpensive 1950s phonograph unit. The vibrations are
conveyed by a series of bars which change the direction of vibration
into the vertical axis in a pin array containing an enlarged reproduction
of one full character and half of each of the preceding and following
characters of the print text. The effect is to present a vibratory stimu-
lation to the finger that emulates the visual display of a traveling news
sign on a building. Although the device is relatively expensive — about
$5,000 — many readers regard it as an investment in independence.
The most enthusiastic users may well be those whose primary per-
ceptual alternative to vision is the tactual mode. About 150 hours of
training result in modest reading speeds of some ten to twenty words
per minute. However, it is interesting to speculate, along with Dr.
Bliss, on the effect of years of practice in appreciating such tactual
stimulation representing ordered information. Were one to begin using
an Optacon at the same time as children begin typically to learn to read
print, then with twelve years or so of constant rehearsal of this skill,
reading speeds with a tactual display might be of a much higher order
of magnitude — perhaps ten times greater or more.
Under development is an accessory for the Optacon which will
yield a synthetic speech output as an alternative to the tactual display.
The synthetic speech signals that will drive the audio output unit on
the attachment are based on the most advanced techniques developed
by the renowned speech laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of
2d0
Reading Aids and Devices
Technology. No firm release date has been given for the speech output
unit; it has been expected for the last two years.*
The Kurzweil Reading Machine, a very advanced synthetic-
speech-output reading device, was bom from MIT research as well, in
a small company financed by the friends and family of Raymond
Kurzweil, a gifted graduate of the Institute. The company has been
purchased recently by Xerox Corporation. There are several models of
the Kurzweil Reading Machine; all operate similarly. A book or other
text is placed on a transparent plate where the characters are scanned
by an optical imaging system. A proprietary image-analysis system
detects the features of the print characters and causes a search of
phonemic memory equivalents of the characters. When found, the
phonemic equivalents are used to drive another computer program to
generate synthetic speech in a manner similar to that of the Optacon
speech-output accessory described above. The major software (com-
puter programming) in the Kurzweil is contained in easily replaced
special cassettes; thus the constant improvements iuiioduced for more
accurate detection of print characters, better shaping of the speech
sounds of the output, the introduction of natural-sounding pauses and
inflection — all these can be introduced into up-dated cassettes which,
when inserted into any previously made machine, bring its perform-
ance up to date. The device, which originally cost more than $50,000,
has been reduced in price by more than half as the computer chips with
which it operates have declined in cost per unit of memory. The
original goal of achieving a $5,000 cost for a model that could be
owned by individuals has not yet been met.
The synthetic speech sounds vaguely foreign to most listeners —
Scandinavian to some — but it has been found that, with exposure to
the device for an hour or so, many listeners have little trouble under-
standing it more or less completely. This reading device is certainly no
substitute in entertainment value for a well-narrated talking book; but
it is intended rather for the reader of reference or technical material or
of books that have not yet found their way into talking-book form. The
synthetic speech display can be thought of as matched to that prefer-
ence for auditory mode characteristic of part of the visually impaired
and blind population. The question of comprehension in long-term
listening to synthetic speech output has not been settled. Some listen-
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That All May Read
ers appear to have little trouble; others seem to undergo a quite
characteristic decline in retention, though not immediate comprehen-
sion, over long listening periods. It is thought by some researchers
that the constant full loading of the short-term auditory memory store
may tend to cause errors in perception to accumulate over long listen-
ing periods. Nevertheless, for the primary use for which it is intended,
the synthetic-speech-output reading machine is the realization of a
demand made by the blind community for several decades; and it is a
brilliant technical achievement.
But the utility of the Kurzweil system has not yet been exhausted. A
recent development is an obvious extension of the character recogni-
tion capability of the device: if the print characters can be recognized,
why not then use this information to drive automatically a print-to-
braille translation program and extract braille instead of speech at the
output? This has been done and, although the system must still be
counted as experimental, it is being evaluated carefully for its poten-
tial by the Library of Congress and by independent researchers.^
An essentially similar system of character recognition of print text
and conversion-to-braille output, with a continuous display of the
braille equivalent, all housed in a desk-sized unit, was announced as
under development in Israel several years ago. Its current status is not
clear.
Text-to-synthetic-speech and spelled-speech equivalents have also
been developed in Canada. Dr. Michael P. Beddoes, of the University
of British Columbia, has been developing several variants of this type
of system, which he calls Textobrail, over a period of several years.
Educational and employment applications have proved most en-
couraging.'"
Indirect Access Approaches
Talking Books. As noted in the discussion of direct access to the
printed page, both the sense of hearing and the sense of touch are used
as substitute channels for information flow in the absence of vision.
But the primary option is the sense of hearing.
The talking book has become pervasive since the 1930s. Its prod-
uction in disc, open reel, and cassette format has become routinized
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Reading Aids and Devices
under well-understood standards in recording and in duplicating. The
talking book has been subject to constant refinement and cost-benefit
analysis. It has reached the stage at which it can be considered a
mature product — that is, one which is produced to meet a well-defined
need at the lowest cost consistent with the quality of performance
required for it to meet that need. Especially with its use expanded
from the blind to the physically impaired population, further refine-
ments will probably be evolutionary not revolutionary: the introduc-
tion of better reproducer heads in tape playback units, the reduction in
size and weight of reproducers, the increase in information density by
use of more advanced tape formulations, and the like. Indeed, the
growth of this medium of book (and magazine) presentation has been
so spectacular that some have worried aloud that the alternative pres-
entation of text in braille may be suffering "benign neglect,"" al-
though recent activities at the Library of Congress in deploying new
technologies have alleviated that concern somewhat. The very success
of the talking book, however, presents us with the important lesson
that no single reading aid can serve all purposes, that different aids
may be desired or required by the same individual in different situa-
tions (home vs. work, for example) or by different individuals in the
same setting. Some persons do best with talking books or synthetic
speech, while others do best with braille and tactual graphics. All can
benefit, however, from the armamentarium of choices matched to
specific local need.
There are some accessories that adapt talking-book usage to special
situations. For example, the Library of Congress has developed a
light-weight, heavy-duty solar panel for patrons in areas without elec-
tricity. Consisting of small silicon cells, it can serve as a battery
recharger for cassette machines. The panel was a low-cost project that
did not involve new technology but adapted commercially available
materials. •-
Among the most frustrating features of the talking book for the
work-oriented user, as contrasted with those who read for pleasure, is
that the normal speech rate of 150 to 175 words a minute is too
slow — about half normal visual reading speed. In a world burdened
with near-overload in information, many users wish to reduce the time
spent listening to recorded material. To accommodate such readers,
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That All May Read
variable motor speed controls have been developed which allow
speed-up of discs and tapes, with the accompanying "Donald Duck"
effect that these users regard as a small price to pay. Some readers
become quite adept at appreciating speech distorted in this way. Li-
brary of Congress cassette playback equipment has had variable speed
capability since 1976. A better solution permits, with the use of a
variable speech module and tape talking book, the speed-up of normal
speech rates to twice normal and more without distortion in pitch. One
method is the so-called bucket-brigade digital sampling of the normal
speech stream; crudely put, the speech is divided electronically into
very small segments, some of them are thrown away, and the rest
abutted one next to the other for a smooth semblance of speech. The
new Library of Congress C-80 cassette machine uses another method
of speech compression, delta modulation. The pitch restoration de-
vice, which has been incorporated at a cost of about ten dollars a unit,
automatically adjusts the rate of compression or expansion to the
selected speed, from three-quarter to more than twice normal speed,
and has a separate on/off switch for those who dislike the noise any
compression system introduces.
Braille. Equally renowned as the product of intervention of another
human being between standard print and the visually impaired reader
is braille. It has been most encouraging to note that a decline in the use
of braille due to the restrictions in the scope and quantity of text
available may soon be reversed by using the same compositor tapes to
drive automatic braille embossing equipment that are used to generate
print text in automatic typesetting equipment. The advent of the com-
puter in press-braille production has also greatly enhanced the capa-
bility to produce more titles in braille and in greater quantity. The day
may not be far off when the same tape used for print text production
can be used as input to a fully automatic braille production system,
right down to the folding of the braille book, its stapling, and the
application of its shipping label. Can we then speak of indirect access
to print text, or no?
The significant innovation involved here is the representation of
braille in coded form on magnetic tapes. Although the repertory of
information now available in this form is very limited, the potential
for applications for readers and users is very great. The major barriers
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Reading Aids and Devices
in the use of braille traditionally have been the time required for its
production and the space required for storage. Braille libraries groan
under the weight of the books stored; braille producers could sink
from view under the weight of the heavy zinc plates used for press
braille, and the latter problem is avoided only by a risk-taking and
judgmental process of weeding out of master plates. Both problems,
and also that of the creation of personal braille libraries in readers'
homes, could be solved by the compact storage of braille encoded
digitally on magnetic tapes and/or discettes. The potential has already
been exploited by several manufacturers around the world — the Euro-
peans led the field until recently — in creating small machines which
allow the recording of 180 pages of braille or so on one C-90 compact
cassette, and the reading of what has been recorded on 12- to 32-
character line displays of "refreshable" or erasable braille charac-
ters.'^ These devices presently are best regarded as reading machines
with a limited library. But they are exceptionally useful as word
processors, as personal filing, storage, and retrieval systems for the
braille-reading user, and, when properly equipped, as computer read-
out terminals. The limitation of the display of braille to a line at a time
may also soon be lifted when whole pages of refreshable display
become available.'^ Already available are embossing terminals which
produce braille on paper, in several different models.'^
Key to the flexibility of these braille display devices is the encoded
character of the text. When text is represented in digital form, it is
termed machine readable, and, with suitable coding or code conver-
sion, this means that a wide variety of machines can be used to receive
and display the text. A library terminal, or a similar terminal located
in a user's home or work environment, could be used even now to
display text in large print on a television monitor'** or to generate
synthetic speech.'^ Moreover, there are several varieties of braille
conversion programs that provide a good approximation to standard
grade 2 braille (American version).'* Systems are now becoming
available which generate print text simultaneously with braille text,
using a very compact microcomputer, a high-quality printer, and a
high-speed braille embossing terminal — with all text modifiable by a
typist who has full text editing capabilities at his disposal, and with
text stored in machine-readable form on small discettes. It is obvious
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That All May Read
that the potential that has been talked about in the availability of
information in digital form, the use of personal computers at home,
and information services of a wide variety of forms — for the sighted,
and commercially — is already available for the braille user. This is
not the first time that technological development for the blind popula-
tion has led, not followed, that for the sighted, but it is certainly one
of the most exciting areas of development yet seen. To accelerate the
process of interchangeability among the codes used by the several
manufacturers of machines which read and write digital braille, one
attempt was made in an international meeting to achieve a uniform
internal code, thus permitting exchange of encoded tapes among the
several makes and models of braille reading devices. Despite the best
intentions, this effort must be counted a failure: only two manufactur-
ers agreed to limited compatibility. ** Yet even this problem may be
overcome with the use of cheap, large-scale microcomputer memories
that can store conversion codes.
It is not a simple task to summarize the explosive developments in
the burgeoning field of applied computer technology in the deploy-
ment of braille. The potential exists to bring about many of the ad-
vantages that a computer-assisted system of library practice allows, as
J. C. R. Licklider developed in his exciting book of almost twenty
years ago. Libraries of the Future. '^^ Yet it must be emphasized that
this potential depends on the development of many applications in
small computer development, the networking of data transmission
lines, and the multipurpose large-scale microprocessors in fields other
than that of braille reading. The development costs could not other-
wise be underwritten for braille alone.
Aids for Physically Disabled People
The high-tech developments described in the prior sections may be
seen as required for making up the information deficit that is the result
of the reading handicap borne by visually impaired and blind people:
since so much information about the world is normally obtained
through the visual channel, a great deal of help is required in trans-
ducing needed information into the auditory and tactual forms needed
by such readers. While those who are physically impaired are indi-
266
Reading Aids and Devices
vidually just as definitely disabled in reading, they possess the enor-
mous advantage of an intact visual channel (unless other impairments
are present, of course). Motion and support capability are, by con-
trast, simpler to provide for the task of reading books and magazines.
This perspective does not obtain, however, in the case of the
neurologically or developmentally disabled, or also in the case of
communications generally: here sophisticated technologies may need
to be brought to bear on conveying information between impaired
persons and those around them. Aids for print reading for physically
impaired people fall generally into two broad categories: book and
magazine holders, and page turners.
The remarks made above concerning the comfort of the person
during the task of reading bear with particular emphasis on the physi-
cally impaired individual. For this reason, book holders and page
turners have been designed both for bed use and for wheelchair use.
Most consist of a platform and lip which hold the book or magazine at
any desired angle and plastic fingers to keep pages down while read-
ing. Models are available for use in the bathtub, for bed/wheelchair/
table use, or in very lightweight FormCor to hold magazines or a
mirror. Another model allows the book to be placed face down on a
clear plastic sheet and projects the page image on a vertical screen; an
option allows projection of the image on the ceiling for the reader
lying supine in bed.^' An adjustable book stand which folds for stor-
age is also available. ^^
The turning of pages is difficult for motion-impaired readers, but
this disability can be alleviated by battery-powered page-mrning de-
vices that can be activated by a puff of air, a pushbutton switch, or a
radio frequency sender device. ^^
Readers who are visually or physically impaired present themselves
for library services with much the same mix of capabilities and
motiviations as do unimpaired persons. In each case, however, they
are disabled in their task of reading standard print text. It is hoped that
the overview of techniques and aids given here will reinforce the
desire and ability of librarians everywhere to assist impaired persons
in their need to access the world's knowledge.
267
That All May Read
NOTES
1 . Frank Kurt Cylke, "International Co-ordination of Library Services for Blind
and Physically Handicapped Individuals; An Overview of IFLA Activities," Unesco
Journal of Information Science, Librarianship, and Archives Administration
4;8I(October- December 1979).
2. Eric Josephson, The Social Life of Blind People (New York: American Founda-
tion for the Blind, 1968), p. 50.
3. The study, published in the Muenchner Medizinische Wochenschrift, was cited
in the Bulletin of the Information Office of the West German Embassy, May 198 1 ,
p. 6.
4. For sources and prices of a number of such aids, see U.S. , Congress, Library of
Congress, National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped,
Reading, Writing, and Other Communication Aids for Visually and Physically
Handicapped Persons, Reference Circular, no. 82-1, October 1981, pp. 24-31.
5. Two manufacturers of CCTVs are: Apollo Laser, Inc., 6357 Arizona Circle,
Los Angeles, California 90045 (213-776-3343); and Visualtek, 1610 26th Street,
Santa Monica, California 90404 (213-829-6841).
6. See National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Closed
Circuit Television Reading Devices for the Visually Handicapped, Bibliography, no.
80-2, September 1980, for a bibliography and a list of manufacturers.
7. See National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Read-
ing Materials in Large Type, Reference Circular, no. 79-3, September 1979, for a
selected list of large-print books for reference and special needs, together with lists of
other sources of information and producers and distributors.
8. Further information can be obtained from Telesensory Systems, Inc., 3408
Hillview Avenue, P.O. Box 10099, Palo Alto, California 94304.
9. Further information about the system can be obtained from Michael Hingston at
Kurzweil Computer Products, 33 Cambridge Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts
02142. A selected bibliography on reading machines, including the Optacon and the
Kurzweil Reading Machine, is published by the National Library Service for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped, Reading Machines for the Blind, Bibliography, no.
80-3, September 1980.
10. Further information can be obtained from Dr. Beddoes at 2075 Wesbrook
Mall, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T
1W5.
1 1 . See Leslie L. Clark, "The Future of Braille," m Studies in Child Language
and Multilingualism, ed. Virginia Teller and Sheila J. White, Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, vol. 345 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences,
1980), pp. 165-187.
12. NLS supplies, free of charge to eligible persons, equipment such as the solar
panel and machines that play talking books but do not record. Blind people can
purchase cassette machines that both play talking books and record from the American
Printing House for the Blind, 1839 Frankfort Avenue, Louisville, Kentucky 40206,
268
Reading Aids and Devices
and talking-book phonographs from the American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West
16th Street, New York, New York 1001 1 . For other sources of machines and acces-
sories, see National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped,
Reading, Writing, andOther Communication Aids.
13. Manufacturers of cassette braille recorders and players are: Braillex Division,
F. H. Papenmeir, 15659 Dover Road, Upperco, Maryland 21 155 (301-526-6444);
Braillocord, D. P. Schonherr, Schloss Solitude, Geb. 3, Federal Republic of Ger-
many (071 1-69-42-37); Clarke and Smith Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Melbourne
House, Melbourne Road, Wallington, Surrey, England (01-699-4411); Elinfa, Inc.,
Triformation Systems, Inc. (Distributor), 3132 S.E. Jay Street, P.O. Box 2433,
Stuart, Florida 33494 (305-283-48 17); and VersaBraille, Telesensory Systems, Inc. ,
3408 Hillview Avenue, P.O. Box 10099, Palo Alto, California 94304 (415-493-
2626).
14. Further information on these devices may be obtained from Douglas Maure,
American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West 16th Street, New York, New York
10010 (212-620-2000); IBM, Data Processing Division, 1 133 Westchester Avenue,
White Plains, New York 10604 (914-696-2571); and Rose Associates, 44 Scranton
Avenue, Falmouth, Massachusetts 02540(617-540-0800).
15. Information on embossing terminals may be obtained from George Dalrymple,
Braillemboss, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Room 31-063, 77 Massachu-
setts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 (617-253-5331); Triformation Sys-
tems, Inc., 3132 S.E. Jay Street, P.O. Box 2433, Stuart, Florida 33494 (305-283-
4817); Sagem Societe d'Applications Generales d'Electricite et de Mecanique, De-
partement de Teletransmissions, 2 rue Ancelle, 92521 Neuilly, France.
16. Terminals for displaying text in large print are available from these organiza-
tions: American Systems, Inc., 123 Water Street, Watertown, Massachusetts 02 172
(617-923- 1850); Arts Computer Products, Inc. , 80 Boylston Street, Suite 1260,
Boston, Massachusetts 021 16 (617-482-8248); Chromatics, Inc., 3923 Oakcliff In-
dustrial Court, Atlanta, Georgia 30340 (404-447-8797); Intelligent Systems Corpo-
ration, 5965 Peachtree Corners East, Norcross, Georgia 30071 (404-499-5961);
Daniel Simkovitz, Low Vision Terminal System, Office of the Dean, College of
Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202 (313-390-3011); and
Radio Shack, Executive Offices, 1600 One Tandy Center, Fort Worth, Texas 76102
(817-390-3011).
17. Companies and individuals engaged in research include: American Systems,
Inc., 123 WaterStreet, Watertown, Massachusetts 02172 (617-923-1850); Arts
Computer Products, Inc., 80 Boylston Street, Suite 1260, Boston, Massachusetts
021 16 (617-482-8248); Dr. M. P. Beddoes. Beddoes Electronic Aids Limited, 750
West Pender Street, Suite 1700, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6C 2B8;
Computer Systems Laboratory, National Institutes of Health, Division of Computer
Research and Technology, Building 12A, Room 2033, Bethesda, Maryland 20205
(301-496- 1 1 1 1); and Spelled Speech Voice Attachment for Terminal, J. C. Swail,
Medical Engineering Section, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada Kl A 0R8.
18. Braille conversion programs which approximate grade 2 braille are produced
269
That All May Read
by Tim Cranmer, Division of Services for the Blind, 593 East Main Street, Frankfort,
Kentucky 40601 (502-564-4754); Digivox, P.O. Box 4634, Inglewood, California
90309 (213-672-4219); Dotran, Arts Computer Products, Inc., 80 Boylston Street,
Suite 1260, Boston, Massachusetts 021 16 (617-482-8248); Dotsys, Dr. John Gill,
Warwick Research Unit for the Blind, University of Warwick, Coventry, England
CV4 7AL (0203-2401 1) (in the United States contact: Emerson Foulke, Perceptual
Alternatives Laboratory, 359 Life Science Building, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Kentucky 40208 [502-588-6722]); Duxbury Systems, Inc., 56 Main Street,
Maynard, Massachusetts 01754 (617-897-8207); Kurzweil Computer Products, 33
Cambridge Parkway, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142 (617-864-4700); Maryland
Computer Services, Inc., 502 Rock Spring Avenue, Bel Air, Maryland 21014 (301-
838-8888); Quickbraille, American Systems, Inc., 123 Water Street, Watertown,
Massachusetts 02 172 (617-923-1850); RadioShack, Executive Offices, 1600 One
Tandy Center, Fort Worth, Texas 76102 (8 17-390-301 1 ); Tribraille2, Triformation
Systems, Inc. , 3 132 S.E. Jay Street, P.O. Box 2433, Stuart, Florida 33494 (305-
283-4817); Votrax (Speech Synthesizer), Division of Federal Screw Works, 500
Stephenson Highway, Troy, Michigan 48084 (313-588-2050); and United Informa-
tion Companies, Inc. (UNICOS), Executive Offices, One Federal Plaza, Boston,
Massachusetts 02 1 10 (6 1 7-482-9622).
19. Leslie L. Clark, ed. , Proceedings of the Meeting on the Unification of Stan-
dards for Digitally Encoded Braille (New York: American Foundation for the Blind,
1978), p. 19.
20. J. C. R. Licklider, Libraries of the Future (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,
1965).
21. Two major manufacturers of book holders are: Aparco, Inc., 55 Lee Road,
Newton, Massachusetts 02 167; andC. Beil Designs, 5435 N. Artesian Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois 60625.
22. From the American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West 16th Street, New York,
New York 10011.
23. Two representative manufacturers of page turners are H. C. and D. Products,
P.O. Box 743, South Laguna, California 92677; and C. R. Bard, Inc., 731 Central
Avenue, Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974.
270
State Programs: A State Librarian's
Perspective
Anthony Miele
The materials and equipment produced by the National Library Ser-
vice for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS) are made avail-
able to eligible users through regional libraries, which serve patrons
directly or establish subregional libraries to do so. Every eligible
reader in the fifty states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and
the Virgin Islands has access to NLS materials through one of the
fifty-six regional libraries.
A regional library may be part of the administrative organization of
a private institution, a public library, a library system, or a state
agency. The majority of regional libraries are administered, in whole
or in part, by a state library agency. In several states, programs are
administered jointly by the state library agency and another state
agency, such as the department of education, institutions, or state. In
six states, state commissions are charged with providing all library
services or share the responsibility with the state library agency.
Whatever the state agency, the regional library is a separate and dis-
tinct entity, considered an equal with other divisions of the agency.
State library agency-administered regional libraries are the focus of
this discussion.
Administration
State library agencies can, in their role as parent organization,
provide less expensive and better administrative support by avoiding
duplication of services and personnel. For example, the agency ac-
quisitions librarian is able to assist in selecting and ordering book and
nonbook materials for the regional library. The agency reference lib-
rarian can provide information from the multitude of resources in a
Anthony Miele. director of the Alabama Public Library Service, wishes to thanlc Miriam Pace and William
Crowley for their assistance in the preparation of this paper
271
That All May Read
state library, as well as through interlibrary loan. The public relations
division can prepare media releases and arrange other publicity for the
regional library. And the field representatives or consultants, assigned
by the state library to geographic areas of the state, can act as liaison
between the public library and the regional library in identifying po-
tential patrons and aiding the local public librarian to offer personal-
ized service to handicapped readers. Perhaps the most important and
far-reaching advantage which accrues to the patrons of a regional
library administered by a state library agency is that the state library's
entire collection, plus its access to the collections of other types of
libraries, is available to them, thus providing vast resources for handi-
capped readers.
Funding
Generally speaking, a regional library receives state and federal
funds. State library agencies usually support regional libraries through
allocations of federal monies available under the provisions of the
Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA). State library agencies
must provide a level of support from LSCA funds for handicapped
services in an amount not less than the second preceding year. Such
support is in addition to the state funds allocated through the state
library agency, or through other state agencies, for the ongoing sup-
port of library service to blind and physically handicapped individu-
als. Special projects to expand the service of a regional library are
often secured through donations and through fund-raising efforts of
friends-of-the-library groups.
Services, Staff, and Facilities
The basic collection of a typical regional library consists of recre-
ational and informational materials in disc, cassette, and braille for-
mats, supplied by NLS. The regional library is required to house at
least one copy of each title, plus sufficient copies of titles needed to
satisfy the demands of its patrons.
To provide an in-depth collection, more comprehensive than NLS
can supply, regional libraries often produce a wide range of books and
magazines of local interest. The utilization of volunteers from the
272
State Programs
local or state community enlarges the talent base available for the local
recording and brailling of books, magazines, newspapers, and other
materials requested by patrons. Generally, volunteer narrators are
carefully screened by an appointed review board, which is often com-
posed of persons having expertise in broadcasting, theater arts, and
communication skills, and includes one or more blind or physically
handicapped persons. Many regional libraries have an audiobook
production center with sound reduction booths and recording equip-
ment. High-quality recording equipment and sound reduction booths
are necessary to produce master tapes of books and magazines. A
duplication section of the library contains the equipment necessary to
reproduce open-reel tape or cassette tape in the required speed and
number of tracks for distribution to patrons. High-speed duplication
equipment in various configurations of open-reel master decks, cas-
sette master decks, and slaves (blank tapes) for each master deck is
used.
Production and reproduction of braille materials are accomplished
by using braille typewriters, Perkins braillers, and Thermoform
machines. Braille typewriters are standard typewriters modified to
produce braille cells. Perkins braillers are typewriterlike machines that
produce braille cells when the six keys are depressed in various com-
binations. Thermoform braille machines are to braille reproduction as
Xerox machines are to print; a heat process transfers the braille from a
master onto a plastic-like material called braillon paper.
Special machines are required to play records and tapes produced
by NLS or network libraries because they are played at low
speeds — S'/s and \6% rpm for records, 1% and 15/16 ips for tapes.
These machines and accessories such as headphones, pillowphones,
tone arm clips, remote control units, and speed control units, as well
as replacement needles, are supplied by NLS. The regional library is
accountable for the machines and accessories, and periodic audits are
performed under the supervision of NLS. If a regional library has
subregional libraries and deposit collections under its jurisdiction, a
clear audit trail of responsibility must be maintained at all times.
Special equipment for blind and physically handicapped individuals
is displayed in many regional libraries. This equipment includes
Apollo lasers, closed-circuit television devices that enlarge print to
273
That All May Read
sixty times its usual size; Optacons, machines which allow a totally
blind person to read print by converting the visual image to a vibrating
tactile image which can be felt with the finger; brailled games such as
chess, Scrabble, bingo, checkers, and playing cards; talking cal-
culators; and magnifying lenses. Displayed equipment is often avail-
able on loan to patrons.
In addition to their braille and recorded collections, many regional
and some subregional libraries maintain large-print book collections,
as well as core collections of print books on blindness and other
physical handicaps. A vertical file for reference and referral gives
access to the most current information on aids and devices for handi-
capped individuals, with updates on progress made in treatment and
rehabilitation.
To provide ease of access for patrons, regional libraries offer toll-
free telephone service or accept collect calls. Telephone-answering
devices give around-the-clock, seven-day-a-week service capability.
The staff of a regional library varies according to the number of
patrons it serves; the size, type, and range of services depend on
physical plant and funding. A typical staff, however, might consist of
the head of the library, one or more reader advisors, a volunteer
coordinator, two or more clerk typists-secretaries, two or more audio
duplication technicians, and two or more warehousemen.
The facilities used by state agency-administered regional libraries
are often accurate barometers of the agency's commitment to library
services for blind and physically handicapped persons. In the past,
some agencies viewed the program as primarily a service involving
only telephones and the U.S. mail. With such a mindset, it was quite
acceptable to rent or purchase a large warehouse without provisions
for handicapped patrons to visit the library in person. Fortunately, a
noticeable change in the public perception of what constitutes ade-
quate library services to blind and handicapped people has been en-
couraged by state and federal legislation in support of the rights of the
patron who cannot use traditional library formats.
Although regional libraries tend to follow a standard pattern con-
forming to the procedures and guidelines of NLS as stated in the
Network Library Manual, many regional libraries serve their patrons
in innovative ways.
274
State Programs
A number of libraries have exercised their creativity and initiative
in taking advantage of local opportunities and resources in their use of
volunteers. For example, in order to improve the quality of the mate-
rials it produces, Arizona uses a Home Review Group composed of
volunteers who are regular talking-book clients. These patrons had
expressed a sincere interest in the recording program of the library and
subsequently proved well qualified to give consistent and informed
feedback on each new book produced by the regional library. The
group has been very helpful in correcting bad narrator habits,
eliminating technical problems, directing book selection, and making
changes in format.' In addition, Arizona has enlisted the support of
two other volunteer groups, somewhat unusual ones: juvenile offen-
ders and the inmates of the Arizona State Prison. The juvenile offen-
ders, many of whom are unemployed students, often prefer to work
off a fine rather than pay it. If they do, the juvenile court may assign
them to the library for clerical work and other chores. Inmates at the
state prison, which has its own recording studio, have volunteered to
tape books for the regional library, which is administered by the
Arizona State Library. Tennessee also uses prison inmate volunteers
but in the production of braille materials. Calling themselves
P.I.R.A.T.E.S (Prison Inmates Recording and Transcribing Educa-
tional Materials for the Sightless), this group has learned braille. In
fact, most participants have become certified braillists. These pro-
grams are innovative in either the service provided by or the source of
volunteers.
Tennessee also boasts the WPLN Talking Library, a closed-circuit
radio station for blind and physically handicapped individuals, free
from the Public Library of Nashville and Davidson County in cooper-
ation with the Tennessee regional library. The program provides daily
newspapers, newly published books, and magazines to eligible pa-
trons, who tune in using on-loan fixed-tuner receivers.- A number of
other libraries provide similar services.
A Michigan subregional library has applied for a grant to establish a
circulating collection of sculpture reproductions by master artists.
Each piece of art is to be accompanied by a braille, large-print, and
cassette biographical sketch of the artist and information about the
sculpture. Prior to the initial circulation, seminars on tactile examina-
275
That All May Read
tion of art, art history, and art appreciation will be conducted by local
experts in the art field. ^
Some regional libraries are testing innovative approaches to read-
ing, such as the Kurzweil Reading Machine. The KRM recognizes
printed characters and converts them into synthetic speech or braille.
Material to be read is placed face down on the surface of a scanner
which transmits the images to a small computer contained in the
machine. The computer recognizes the letters, groups them into
words, and computes the pronunciation of each word electronically
into synthetic speech or a braille copy of the print.
Developing Trends in Automation
Computerization of reader records, inventory, and statistics is be-
coming widespread in libraries. Using fully on-line, partially on-line,
or batch systems, libraries are converting endless hours of manual
paper work into an automated process, thereby freeing staff time for
personalized patron service. Automation has also reached the services
provided by regional libraries and illustrates the potential of state
library agencies as administering agencies for library services for
blind and physically handicapped persons. The high cost of automat-
ing the operation of a regional library, with subsequent faster and
more efficient service, is more likely to be undertaken by a state
library agency, which may already have computer capability. Program
analysts may already be part of the agency's staff and thus available to
create or redesign the software required by the regional library. With
costs reduced by utilizing a common computer operation, it is reason-
able to assume that in the near future all regional libraries will enjoy
the benefits of automation.
Developing Trends in Funding Pattern
Most of the state agencies that administer programs to blind and
physically handicapped persons suffer from a lack of funds; however,
new laws such as those extending the rights of blind and physically
handicapped people through mainstreaming and building accessibility
provide a hope for better funding in the future. In some states, the
election of blind or handicapped citizens to state legislatures means
276
State Programs
the regional libraries may have patron legislators in a position to assist
them in obtaining increased funding. The regional libraries must not
overlook these new-found sources of support in government.
Association of State Library Agencies' Position
At a meeting in 1978 of the Chief Officers of State Library Agen-
cies (COSLA), the members expressed an affirmative stand on pro-
viding library services for handicapped people. They endorsed this
statement approved in June 1978 by the board of directors of the
Association of State Library Agencies (a predecessor of the Associa-
tion of Specialized and Cooperative Library Agencies) as typical of
the commitment of most state agencies with regional library responsi-
bilities:
It is the position of the Association of State Library Agencies of the American Library
Association that library services for blind and physically handicapped persons are an
integral part of the mainstream of library service planning and development within
each state.
The association recognizes the responsibility of each state library agency to plan,
develop, and promote library services which best serve the library and information
needs of all persons within that state. It is understood that the planning, development,
and promotion of such services will include input from all cooperating agencies and
from persons using library services. It is therefore necessary that state library agencies
coordinate, monitor, and evaluate the implementation of library services for the blind
and physically handicapped within each state.
The association advocates the rights of blind and physically handicapped persons to
receive library services from appropriate public, school, special, and academic
libraries consistent with each library agency's long range plan and the state's current
level of local library development and quality of service.
In taking this position the association recognizes the responsibility of each state to
fund library services to blind and physically handicapped persons consistent with
funding patterns for other in-state library services and networks.
The association also recognizes the responsibility of the Library of Congress Na-
tional Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in library network
planning and development on the national level. To fully effect in-state planning for
library services for blind and physically handicapped persons, state library agencies
and the National Library Service must develop and maintain a close working relation-
ship.
Federal grant funds to support services for blind and physically handicapped per-
sons in library networks must be made available to the states in such manner as to
assure the integrity of each state's library development program; and further these
grants should be administered in a manner which encourages state library agencies to
277
That All May Read
implement their responsibility for planning, coordinating, and funding. State library
agencies also must have authority for determining the utilization of such grants within
each state in keeping with each state's long range program.^
NOTES
1 . Arizona Department of Library, Archives and Public Records, Library for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped, Annual Report, 1977-1978 (Phoenix, 1978).
2. Katheryn C. Culbertson, director, Tennessee State Library and Archives, letter
dated August 16, 1978.
3. Beverly Daffern Papal, "Notes from Oakland County Subregional Library for
the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Farmington," material included in a letter
from Julie A. Nichol, regional librarian. State of Michigan, Department of Education,
dated July 28, 1978.
4. Robert F. Ensley, "State Library Agencies and the Provision of Library Ser-
vices for Blind and Physically Handicapped Persons," Catholic Library World
52:152-153 (November 1980).
278
The NLS Network
Karen Renninger and Thomas J. Martin
The nationwide network of agencies cooperating with the National
Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS) in
Washington, D.C., includes hundreds of state and local agencies:
regional libraries, subregional libraries, deposit and demonstration
collections, multistate centers, and machine-lending agencies.' NLS
provides recorded and braille books and magazines for recreational
and informational reading, sound playback equipment, reference and
bibliographic support, publications, and coordinating support. Net-
work agencies provide space, staff, and all aspects of library service to
persons certified by a competent authority to be unable to see well
enough to read a conventional print book or to hold a book and turn
pages.
Network Libraries
The network of cooperating libraries is divided into four regions: the
West, the North, the South, and the Midlands. The libraries belong to
their own regional conference, headed by an elected chairperson.
Regional conferences generally meet in odd-numbered years some-
where in their own region. In even-numbered years NLS hosts a
national conference for all network libraries.
Regional Libraries
A regional library is one designated by NLS to provide library
services to individuals in a specific geographic area. Most are
administered and funded by state or local governments, some by
agencies for blind or handicapped individuals. Funding may be
Kuren Renninger, formerly assistant chief. Network Division, NationuJ Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped, is now the chief of the Library Division. Veterans Administration Thomas J Martin
is the network consultant. National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
279
That All May Read
supplemented by Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA)
grants.
In 1981, the NLS network included 56 regional libraries, at least
one in each state except North Dakota and Wyoming. The states of
California, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania have two
regional libraries each. The District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the
Virgin Islands have regional libraries as well.
Routine services provided by regional libraries include circulation
of braille and recorded books to readers, usually by mail; communica-
tion with readers through newsletters and telephone calls; reader ad-
visory assistance; production of locally oriented materials; outreach
and publicity; coordination with and referral to related institutions and
agencies; provision of sample aids and appliances; reference; interli-
b'rary loan; duplication of materials recorded on cassette tape; equip-
ment assignment; and publications distribution. The regional library
may serve readers directly or it may establish subregional libraries
throughout its area to serve some or all of them.
Subregional Libraries
Subregional libraries are local, usually public, libraries designated
by a regional library, with the approval of NLS, to provide service to
individuals in a specified area of the regional library's total jurisdic-
tion. Twenty-two states have established subregional or branch ser-
vice patterns. Funding may be provided entirely from local sources or
from a combination of state, local, and federal sources.
Subregional libraries must serve a minimum of 200 readers. Gener-
ally, their collections are limited to recorded books and are comprised
of one copy each of the current and the immediate past year's produc-
tion of recorded books per 300 readers served.
Numbering more than a hundred in 198 1 , subregional libraries pro-
vide mail and walk-in circulation service for books recorded on disc
and on cassette. They also loan the equipment on which to play
recorded books, instruct patrons in their use, and assist patrons in the
selection of titles. They forward to regional libraries requests for
material they cannot supply. They register new borrowers and pub-
licize service to encourage use by as many eligible patrons as possible.
280
The NLS Network
They enlist assistance and support for service from civic groups, vol-
unteers, special interest groups, and the news media.
Subregional libraries also encourage readers to use local library
services, if possible, and to become involved in regular library ac-
tivities. Telephone reference, recorded music, loan copies of paintings
and sculptures, book discussion groups, special tours or outings, chil-
dren's story hours, puppet shows, films, and special exhibits are
examples of such typical public library services and activities.
Deposit Collections
Subregional and regional libraries furnish collections of material (at
least 100 titles) and playback equipment to institutions having ten or
more eligible users, such as nursing homes, convalescent centers,
hospitals, or public libraries providing walk-in service to readers.
There were more than 19,000 deposit collections in 198 1 .
Demonstration Collections
Subregional and regional libraries establish demonstration collec-
tions in pubUc libraries and other institutions, providing samplings of
reading materials and equipment for display and information purposes
or to give emergency service to readers.
Advisory Functions
As the agencies that directly serve patrons, network libraries are a
valuable advisory resource for NLS. Representatives of network li-
braries serve on various ad hoc NLS committees, such as those on
collection development and automated service, as well as monitoring
patron testing of new equipment models and serving on an advisory
board to review ALA standards.
Multistate Centers
The number of blind and physically handicapped persons receiving
library services through the NLS network increased by 300 percent
from 1966 to 1977; the number of cooperating libraries providing
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That All May Read
service to these readers also increased dramatically. With this rapid
growth came the need for a decentralized, broad-ranged structure to
bolster the efforts of the library network. Multistate centers (MSCs)
were designed to fill this need.
MSCs operate under a contractual agreement with NLS to provide
backup materials and related services to network libraries in assigned
parts of the country of about thirteen states each. Two MSCs were
established in 1974, the South and the West, and two in 1976, the
North and the Midlands.
Each center works with NLS and relates directly to the network
libraries in its service area, not to patrons. It houses and lends on
interlibrary loan all library materials available in the national program.
It maintains and circulates special collections of lesser-used materials,
including cassette and braille books selected for limited distribution,
back issues of magazines, and books produced by volunteers in its
area. It stores and lends sound reproducers and allied equipment, and
it houses and ships nationally produced program promotion materials
such as brochures and catalogs.
MSCs are monitored regularly to ensure that required services are
being provided on a timely basis. Contracts are awarded for one year,
with an option to renew for another year. Parent agencies of existing
centers are either state agencies or independent nonprofit agencies.
Machine-Lending Agencies
State or local organizations are designated by NLS to receive, issue,
and control federally owned and supplied equipment, including spe-
cially designed record players, cassette machines, and accessories.
While most machine-lending agencies are administered by regional
libraries, some (sixteen in 1981) are separate agencies.
The machine-lending agency must sign a Lending Agency Service
Agreement with the Library of Congress to indicate acceptance of
responsibilities. No direct payment is involved. In return for provision
of U.S. government equipment, agencies agree to serve all persons
eligible for service within their designated geographical service areas.
They also agree to assume custodial responsibility for all sound repro-
ducers, other reading equipment, and accessories assigned to them.
282
The NLS Network
taking normal security precautions for their safeiceeping, and to
maintain inventory control over all accountable equipment assigned to
them. Finally, they agree to provide inventory information with rea-
sonable promptness, while assuring the confidentiality of records in
accordance with local law relating to recipients of Library of Congress
reading equipment.
NLS Services
Consultant Program
The NLS consultant program includes one fuU-tiine consultant as-
signed to two of the four regions. Other administrative staff members
act as consultants to the other two regions. Consultants respond to
requests from librarians for professional advice concerning all aspects
of library service generally and of NLS programs specifically. They
gather information about specific problems and discern indications of
emerging patterns. Consultants serve as initial contacts for network
librarians who do not know the appropriate NLS person or office to
call and may act as liaison for the network libraries with other NLS
units. Consultant services are extended to all libraries in the network,
by telephone or correspondence or through personal interaction at
meetings. In addition, consultants make personal visits to the MSCs
and regional libraries. Thus, they facilitate the movement of ideas and
programs from one library to another and communication in both
directions between NLS and the network.
NLS has a public responsibility to ensure that materials produced
reach and meet the needs of eligible blind and physically handicapped
readers. Information about the effectiveness of network libraries is
especially important for planning NLS programs. NLS believes it is
equally important that network libraries and their sponsoring agencies
have qualitative guidelines for administrative purposes. Standards ap-
proved in 1979 by the American Library Association^ (ALA) provide
the uniform basis for comparative assessment of network libraries
from a collective professional view of desirable service provisions.
Data about the status of network libraries in relation to the ALA
standards are gathered in an annual survey. In addition, consultants
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periodically visit network libraries to develop a full picture of library
performance.
Other Support Services
NLS offers other support services to help network agencies. A
Network Library Manual, listing policies and procedures in a variety
of areas, is on file at each network library. Inserts are revised as
appropriate and distributed. A technical manual for each model of
playback equipment, together with video programs and accompanying
printed instructions, describe how to repair and maintain equipment.
Handbooks or manuals on manual circulation systems, public educa-
tion, planning barrier-free libraries, and other subjects are available to
network libraries. A three-day orientation to NLS is available to new
network staff whose travel expenses are paid by their libraries.
Network libraries receive publications from NLS, which also func-
tions as a clearinghouse for reference services and materials relating to
physical disabilities. Bibliographies, reference circulars, and package
libraries supply background information which network libraries may
not be able to find easily on a variety of subjects, such as reading
materials in large type, reading machines for blind individuals, and
eye diseases of the elderly. Questions that cannot be answered locally
are forwarded to NLS.
NLS staff conduct workshops at local sites for volunteers who
braille or record books for network libraries. One unit of NLS works
full time on training and ultimately certifying braille transcribers and
proofreaders. NLS publishes and distributes Update, a newsletter for
volunteers.
Regular communication with the network is maintained through
network bulletins mailed frequently to all cooperating libraries and
agencies and a quarterly newsletter. News. The NLS network is
unique in its history and cooperative nature and a frontrunner in the
general library networking world. Through its regional and subre-
gional libraries, machine agencies, multistate centers, and deposit and
demonstration collections, it has circulated millions of items and pro-
vided a myriad of public library services to meet the recreational
reading and information needs of blind and physically handicapped
patrons.
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The NLS Network
NOTES
1 . For regional and subregional libraries and machine-lending agencies, see the
latest issue of the directory published by the Library of Congress, National Library
Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Library Resources for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped.
2. See American Library Association, Association of Specializing and Coopera-
tive Library Agencies, Standard for Library Service to the Blind and Physically
Handicapped Subcommittee, Standards of Service for ike Library of Congress Net-
work of Libraries for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (Chicago: American
Library Association, 1979).
285
Part Three
School Library Media Services
Ruth A. Velleman and Joan A. Miller
School library media services for handicapped children must be
viewed against the background of the development of the education of
handicapped children in this country. According to the 1976 annual
report of the National Advisory Committee on the Handicapped, there
were approximately 8 million handicapped children of school age,
about one half of them still without an appropriate education.' The
Rand Corporation report Services for Handicapped Youth, May 1973,
cited similar statistics; however, the report stated that educational
services were uneven from state to state, with the proportion of chil-
dren served ranging from less than 20 percent to more than 90 per-
cent.^ It was because of the need to identify educationally unserved
disabled children and to provide a suitable education for them that
P.L. 94- 142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1975, was passed.^ P.L. 94-142 has been called the Mainstreaming
Act, but in reality this is a misnomer. What the act actually requires is
that every disabled child receive a free public education in the least
restrictive environment which is deemed appropriate to his or her
special needs. This might well mean placement in a regular school
setting, but it could mean placement in any one of a number of special
school situations ranging from a special class in a regular school to a
special school, either day or residential, or home teaching. An indi-
vidual educational plan (lEP) must be provided, according to the law,
for each handicapped child within each school district, in order to
determine proper placement, and the parent is considered to be an
active member of the team which makes this determination.
Ruth A. Velleman is the library director of the Human Resources Center and School, Albertson, New York.
Joan A. Miller, formerly the coordinator of the Educational Programs and Studies Information Service, New
York State Education Department. Albany, New York, is the manager of Information Transfer, Solar Energy
Research Institute, Golden, Colorado.
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The Expanded Library Media Center Concept
The fact that many physically disabled children will be appealing in
the regular school population and that many others will, in their spe-
cial school situations, be required to have a richer education, one
similar to that offered to their able-bodied peers, will inevitably result
in changes in the field of school library service to exceptional chil-
dren.
In the past, such programs have been rare. The 1973 Rand study
does not even mention library service as one of the range of services
being offered to exceptional children. Statistics in this field do not
seem to exist. Before the 1950s, there are no reports at all of work in
the area of library service to exceptional children.
Schools have been slow to make a full range of library media
services available to their handicapped students, at least in part be-
cause of the widespread practice, until the passage of P.L. 94- 142, of
maintaining special class placements for many handicapped children.
Self-contained classrooms or separate facilities invited the establish-
ment of classroom collections of learning resources and recreational
materials^ and slowed the establishment of integrated library media
center services at the local level.
Paradoxically, provision of various media-related services from the
federal level has also dampened local initiative and the desire to es-
tablish more comprehensive services in some areas of the nation while
acting as a catalyst in others.^
A third factor which has contributed to the slow growth of programs
has been the shortage of personnel trained to work with blind, visually
handicapped, and physically disabled children in the school media
center setting.
For the most part, blind and visually handicapped children were the
first to be served. Physically and mentally handicapped children were
the last to be served by the library media field, and, sadly, in many
locations services to them remain inadequate. Many schools for ex-
ceptional children do not have school libraries, although many more
than previously do have some sort of media services. Good libraries
have not been considered affordable, and many special educators have
not been aware of their importance to the education of disabled chil-
288
School Library Media Services
dren. During the late 1960s and early 1970s sophistication of educa-
tional technology resulted in the development of new methods of
teaching children with various disabilities. As a result, teaching staff
and other professionals, as well as parents, slowly began to become
aware of the fact that the trained library media specialist, knowledge-
able about where special materials could be obtained, would be a
valuable member of the educational team. Classroom collections are
being integrated into school media centers, some federally initiated
programs are being replicated at state, regional, and local levels, and a
few schools of library and information science are beginning to estab-
lish courses to train librarians for work with the handicapped in all
types of library settings.
The individualized instructional program approach mandated by
P.L. 94-142 and the fact that many disabled children have entered
regular school programs for the first time will require the acquisition
and dissemination of information to teachers and other professionals
about the physical namre of disabilities, how to change attitudes of
staff and students toward disabled children, sources of support ser-
vices and information for parents of disabled children, adaptation of
physical facilities to accommodate physically disabled people, and
special devices for blind and visually handicapped students. This in-
formation can best be assembled by the professional librarian, trained
to perform this task. At the same time the school library media pro-
gram itself will have to be adjusted to the needs of exceptional chil-
dren.
The Barriers Are Really Attitudinal
In order to be able to work with exceptional children and to offer
support services to other staff members and parents, library media
specialists will have to deal with their own feelings and attimdes
toward children who, on the surface, may seem very different from
their able-bodied peers but who, in reality, must come to be seen first
and foremost as just children. Since our society is so geared toward
how people look, it is sometimes difficult to see beyond the visible
physical impairment, beyond the wheelchair, the braces and crutches,
the facial disfigurement, or the asocial mannerisms of the totally blind
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That All May Read
child. Disabled people complain about depersonalization, being
treated as if they were part of the devices they use to help them in their
daily functioning. People tend to talk to a disabled person's compan-
ion, as if any disability causes lack of speech, or to assume that a
small person is younger than actual chronological age. Basically,
physical appearance, in the case of physically disabled people, must
be overlooked, the disability viewed as a matter of inconvenience, and
positive attempts made to see each child for his or her abilities and
similarities with, rather than differences from, the able-bodied.
While these similarities exist, there are differences, as psychologi-
cal problems do become exaggerated in the presence of a disability.®
Teenage development, always a traumatic period, becomes more up-
setting to the disabled teenager whose growth pattern is slower or
whose physical appearance is appreciably different from his able-
bodied peers. Adequate sexual information for the handicapped, now
more readily available than ever before, should be available in the
library for the use of school psychologists, guidance counselors, and
other support personnel, as well as for the students themselves.
Parents of disabled children need a great deal of support, and there
are now many books that librarians can make a part of their profes-
sional collections to provide this help. Parents are often overprotective
of exceptional children, and sometimes rejecting. It is not unusual to
find a high rate of divorce among the parents of disabled children.
Siblings, too, may be severely affected by the presence of a handi-
capped child in the family. For these reasons, librarians must be aware
that often they will need to act as sensitive members of the profes-
sional team and be prepared to offer help, in the way of literature, as
well as understanding.
Dealing with the concept of death when working with children with
terminal disabilities is something which librarians must handle for
themselves before they will be able to deal with the emotional needs of
fellow staff members or other students. Often younger children are
afraid that they will die, too, even though their own disabilities may
not be of the terminal kind. Death must be seen as part of the con-
tinuum of the life process. It is easier to accept the death of a termi-
nally disabled child when one realizes that the child has been helped
toward the best possible quality of life simply by being in an accepting
290
School Library Media Services
school environment. A library media specialist will gain considerable
consolation from having been of some help to such a child.
Attitude is also of importance in dealing with disabled youngsters
with severe communication problems. Often these students are clas-
sified as being less intelligent than they really are, or less mature, and
are treated inappropriately .
To assist with the attitudes of other students toward the integrated
disabled child, there is an abundance of good children's literature
which offers positive portrayals of handicapped people. While dis-
abled children, for the most part, do not want to read about them-
selves, it is important that able-bodied children be made aware of the
ramifications of disabilities by reading nonstereotypical depictions of
handicapped people. Notes from a Different Drummer: A Guide to
Juvenile Fiction Portraying the Handicapped is an annotated bib-
liography of such fiction and a worthwhile reference source for chil-
dren's and young adults' librarians who wish to enrich their collec-
tions with positive portrayals of handicapped fictional characters.^
Eliminating Architectural Barriers
In order to accommodate physically disabled students, libraries must
be architecturally accessible. While extensive adjustments need not be
made, it will be necessary to eliminate high-pile carpeting, narrow
doors, steps, and door sills. A cluttered floor plan will impede the
mobility of wheelchairs and also cause problems for blind or visually
impaired students. Perimeter wall shelving is most desirable. When
book stacks are used, at least thirty inches (and preferably five feet) of
space is needed to permit passage of wheelchairs. A standard wheel-
chair is twenty-five inches wide, and it is, therefore, advisable that
doors be thirty-two inches wide. Wheelchairs need five feet to pass
each other and have a five-foot turning radius. Tables should be
apronless and without pedestals. A height of twenty-nine inches is
desirable. No other special furniture is necessary, unless a special
table, or standing box, is prescribed by a physical therapist. Librarians
will, of course, need to work with administrators, parents, and medi-
cal staff to provide other specialized equipment for special needs.
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That All May Read
The most important piece of equipment in the school library is the
card catalog, and a sixteen-inch-high base, which can be made by any
library furniture supplier, would make this standard library tool acces-
sible to students in wheelchairs. A second cabinet must stand next to
the first one, on a similar low base, rather than be stacked on top of it.
In some cases, of course, space is not available for this kind of
modification; however, handicapped students have full access to the
information in the card catalog only when this design is used.
An institutional grade tackless carpet which has a tight weave and is
cemented to the floor without a pad is advantageous to students who
use crutches and braces, although in some cases even this floor cov-
ering is difficult for students in wheelchairs to navigate. When no
carpeting is used, a nonskid vinyl floor covering is desirable. Light-
weight doors with see- through panels, lever handles rather than door
knobs, and metal kick plates are most desirable. Lowered light
switches offer even greater accessibility to students in wheelchairs or
those of small stature. Study carrels forty-eight inches wide rather
than the usual thirty-six inches, provide better room for wheelchairs,
as well as space for storage of braillers, special typewriters, and
audiovisual equipment.
Once inside the library, many physically handicapped students need
only a minimum of assistance to utilize the library's resources fully.
As with visually handicapped students, a wide variety of multimedia
formats and appropriate equipment® will allow physically disabled
students to select and use materials according to their abilities and
learning needs. ^
The use of volunteers or library aides may also be appropriate in the
school library serving physically disabled students, depending on the
severity of restriction of the students' mobility and the degree of
accessibility of resources.
Many legally blind and visually impaired students can appreciate
displays of large pictures with little detail, oudined in dark colors;
three-dimensional displays that can be touched; and maps and globes
with distinct outlines. Cassette explanations can be set up to go along
with some of these exhibits. Some shelving should be reserved for
braille and large-type books.
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School Library Media Services
The Nature of the Population
Physically disabled children are a very diversified group composed of
those with birth defects such as osteogenesis imperfecta, dysauto-
nomia, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, arthrogryposis; neurological
impairments such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy; and special health
problems such as hemophilia and heart disorders. Students may also
be disabled later in childhood or adolescence, by accident or illness,
and may be paraplegic or quadraplegic . Visually disabled sUidents
have many different types of disabilities, which manifest themselves
in different ways. A glossary of brief definitions of some of these
disorders has been included at the end of this chapter. Each of these
disabilities produces its own unique set of physical and learning prob-
lems. Many parent organizations have published pamphlet materials
about individual disabilities, which can be procured for little or no
money and kept on file in the library for the use of the staff. Physically
Handicapped Children: A Medical Atlas for Teachers is worth pur-
chasing; edited by two physicians, it offers readable information about
many physical disabiUties.'"
Certain general characteristics do apply to most disabled children.
They exhibit a wide range of intellectual ability but usually have low
social awareness due to lack of worldly experience. A good verbal
ability is deceptive as it will, especially in the case of children with
spina bifida, frequently consist of repetitive stock phrases. Low aca-
demic performance among disabled children may be due to irregular
school attendance or to minimal brain damage. In addition, many
children disabled from birth develop perceptual problems, possibly
because they do not move around in early childhood. For all of these
reasons many physically and visually handicapped children tend to
perform at a slower academic rate than their able-bodied peers.
Reading Interests
Most disabled children are not interested in reading about disability.
When they do, they are quick to pick up inaccuracies and insincerities
in the writing. Their interests are usually very similar to those of their
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That All May Read
peers, and they like to read sports stories, romances, mysteries, sci-
ence fiction, and various other kinds of books. A book should not be
offered to a disabled child simply because of the disability it describes
unless such a book is specifically requested. Disabled children do
appreciate it, however, when they see children with disabilities por-
trayed in hterature in a positive way.
The Library Program
Handicapped children benefit from the same active library programs
as do other children. Appreciation of good literature can be encour-
aged by story hours during which books appropriate for the listeners'
age levels and maturity are introduced. Children who are reading
below grade level may not be able to read and appreciate these books
themselves. In addition, concept books, which help develop percep-
tual ability; books about other countries and other cultures, which
broaden experiences; books which deal with how to handle emotions;
and books which emphasize the sound of language by such devices as
repetition and rhyming are all good story hour choices.
Exposure to media, both audio and visual, helps disabled children
to acquire listening and viewing skills. Activity records from such
companies as Stallman-Susser Educational Systems, Educational Ac-
tivities, Scholastic Records, and CMS Records are extremely popular
with young disabled children during story hours. Creative media from
such companies as Weston Woods serve to help disabled children
visualize to an even greater extent the stories being presented to them.
A really creative media librarian can encourage such projects as origi-
nal animated films and videotapes. All children should be encouraged
to take books home, and, when portable equipment is available, film
strips and audiotapes and other media as well.
Many physically disabled children will be going on to higher edu-
cation, and all disabled children will be leading more active lives than
has heretofore been possible. It is important that library skills lessons
be offered so that independence in using both academic and public
libraries will be acquired. These lessons will be successful if they are
geared to the appropriate academic development of the students.
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School Library Media Services
Blind and Visually Handicapped Students
Integration of the blind or visually handicapped child into regular class
programs presents the need for special effort. Some recently published
materials are helpful to school staffs. Guidelines for Public School
Programs Serving Visually Handicapped Children presents the prin-
ciple that there will certainly be a great need for knowledgeable sup-
port personnel to help comply with P.L. 94-142; When You Have a
Visually Handicapped Child in Your Classroom is a companion pub-
lication. Children with Visual Handicaps: A Guide for Teachers,
Parents, and Others Who Work with Visually Handicapped Pre-
schoolers is one of a series published by the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare and for sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
ments.'* Other books in the series of eight, Mainstreaming Preschool-
ers, deal with orthopedically handicapped, learning-disabled,
hearing-impaired, emotionally disturbed, speech- and language-
impaired, health-impaired, and mentally retarded preschoolers.
Visually handicapped and blind children can participate in all li-
brary activities, can certainly enjoy story hours, and can enjoy films
when the action taking place on the screen is described to them. Many
visually handicapped students need to sit close to the screen. Rear
projection screens are ideal, since they allow those who need to get
close to do so without blocking the image. Corrective lenses and
low-vision aids may also facilitate use of the school library by par-
tially sighted students.
The various formats of many school library materials available
today make the development of a school library program for blind and
visually handicapped children a challenge and a reward. Large-print,
talking-book (on discs), taped, realia, and braille and other tactile
materials can become the rule rather than the exception in the school
program serving blind and visually handicapped smdents. It is pos-
sible for visually handicapped students to use the card catalog on their
own if, as in several libraries, the catalog card is brailled on one side
and in large print on the other. '^ Volunteers or aides may be valuable
in assisting visually handicapped students in use of the school library.
They may also tape or transcribe whole chapters or books for students
who need materials not readily available from standard sources.
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That All May Read
Advances in machine and computer technology have helped pro-
duce such devices as the Kurzweil Reading Machine for the Blind and
the very newly developed Kurzweil Talking Terminal. The Reading
Machine allows a blind person access to any print material available.
The Talking Terminal converts computer-transmitted standard English
text into comprehensible synthetic speech.''*
Close attention to the physical environment is a must when working
with the visually handicapped student. Carpeting and drapes help to
reduce noise; light colors increase the illumination in the room; desks
with adjustable tops can assist the partially sighted. The excellent
article "Designing Desirable Physical Conditions in Libraries for Vi-
sually Handicapped Children" should be consulted before embarking
on library modifications for this group."
Visually handicapped students need a thorough knowledge of the
various sources of library materials and services available to them,
since, in all probability, they will become adult users of libraries if
properly instructed and not frustrated or "turned off in the search for
and use of library and learning resources.
Sources of Materials
Several major providers/sources of library-related materials for blind,
visually handicapped, and physically disabled children may supple-
ment local school media center services and thus lend further enrich-
ment to the learning experiences of handicapped students. Their
programs are discussed in brief in the following sections.
The American Printing House for the Blind
The American Printing House for the Blind (APH), a nonprofit
organization founded in 1858, is the oldest national agency serving
blind people in the United States. Its production of educational mate-
rials is subsidized under the Act to Promote the Education of the
Blind, passed in 1879.'-' APH provides textbook materials in braille,
large-print, and recorded form to preschool through secondary school
users. It also designs, produces, and supplies reading aids and other
296
School Library Media Services
tangible aids and equipment as well as consumables such as notepaper
and braillon.
Each state receives a letter of credit from APH each year to pur-
chase these materials for students who are registered as legally blind
with either the chief state school officer or the state education agency.
For educational purposes, a legally blind person is one who has a
visual acuity in the better eye of 20/200 or less after the best possible
correction or whose field of vision is no greater than twenty degrees.*®
The number of children is determined through a yearly survey and
roughly twenty-five thousand are registered annually. Schools and
individuals may purchase APH materials for nonlegally blind students
if they so choose; however, federally subsidized material is provided
only to legally blind students as defined above.
The American Printing House undertakes all aspects of develop-
ment and production of its materials, from conceptualization through
final-product distribution direct to the school serving the student.
Quantities of materials produced are generally small, however, and
delivery time may be lengthy. Much of the production operation is not
fully automated due to the types of materials produced, which may
also contribute to some delays in delivery.
The Central Catalog, a compilation of all materials produced in
braille, large-print, or recorded form by APH, Recording for the Blind
(RFB), and other volunteer transcribing agencies, is maintained and
updated by APH. Copies of the Central Catalog can be found in state
education agencies, regional libraries for blind and physically handi-
capped readers, and some large public libraries.
Contact for APH services is made through the state education
agency services for handicapped students or the chief state school
officer.
National Library Service for tlie Blind and Physically Handicapped
In 193 1 , with the passage of the Pratt-Smoot Act, Congress au-
thorized the Library of Congress to provide a national program of free
reading material for blind adult residents. In 1952, the act was
amended to remove the world adult, effectively making blind children
eligible for services and materials. Later, in 1966, the passage of P.L.
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That All May Read
89-522 extended service to residents with other disabilities which
interfered with their ability to read or otherwise use or hold printed
materials. ^^ The structure of regional libraries was also outlined in the
original legislation.
The basic mission of the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped (NLS) of the Library of Congress, formerly
the Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (DBPH), is to
provide books and magazines, and the equipment with which to play
them if recorded, to those persons who are unable to utilize regular
print due to a visual or physical handicap.
From an initial funding of $ 100,000 annually and nineteen regional
libraries as service and distribution points, the program has grown to a
funding level in 1981 of approximately $32,671,650, with fifty-six
regional libraries and 101 subregional libraries serving the United
States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. A readership of 839,000
is served by the program with free loan of braille or recorded recre-
ational material. Users are also eligible to receive equipment and
accessories and are entitled to free mailing privileges to return mate-
rials. Many of the libraries also circulate their own collections of
large-print materials.
Major services of the NLS include the production of over two-
thousand braille, disc, and cassette titles and approximately seventy-
five magazines each year; the purchase and loan of talking-book
phonographs, cassette players, and other specialized equipment;
bimonthly production of Talking Book Topics (in print and on flexible
disc) and Braille Book Review (in print and braille), which list new
titles in the collection; and production and distribution of catalogs and
subject bibliographies to patrons and of reference circulars and other
information related to the program to network librarians. The total
number of titles in the collection is around twenty-eight thousand.
NLS services also include a music library, created by Congress in
1962. The NLS music collection, made up of about thirty-thousand
braille and large-print scores and recorded instructional materials, is
located in and administered from Washington, D.C.
Actual delivery of services is usually performed by the regional or
subregional library nearest the user. In addition to loaning materials,
the regional library may pursue a variety of outreach and publicity
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School Library Media Services
programs; conduct special programs; produce newsletters, bibliog-
raphies, and local-interest materials; and generally provide for appro-
priate user services.
To be eligible to receive NLS services, an individual must obtain a
statement from a professional staff member of a school, library, or
hospital or from a doctor, nurse, or optometrist, certifying the disabil-
ity. The individual may apply for services through the nearest regional
library or directly to the Library of Congress. After certification, the
regional library will contact the client with appropriate services.
Less than 10 percent of the population served by the NLS program
are elementary or secondary school students.'® Those who are served
are receiving primarily supplemental services in much the same way
the local public library supplements the school library collection. It
should be clear that the NLS program is not, nor was it intended to be,
a substitute for a strong school library media program. However, the
youth of today are the adults of tomorrow, so every effort should be
made to introduce the blind, visually handicapped, or physically dis-
abled students to NLS services, to serve their future as well as their
current needs.
National Instructional Materials Information System (NIMIS)
During the long period of growth of special education programs for
handicapped people, one area which received major attention at the
federal level was the locating and evaluating of appropriate instruc-
tional materials for classroom use by handicapped students. A histori-
cal overview of the network which supported the growth of the Special
Education Instructional Materials Center Network can be found in The
Special Child in the Library^^ and provides background for the fol-
lowing discussion of the development of the National Instructional
Materials Information System (NIMIS I and NIMIS II).
The National Instructional Materials Information System (NIMIS
I). From 1972 to 1974, the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped
(BEH) funded the development of a computerized file of information
on media and materials designed and adapted for use by handicapped
learners. The major purpose of this activity was to provide persons
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That All May Read
involved in the education of the handicapped student population with a
wider array of appropriate materials for use in instruction.
The NIMIS I database was originally developed by the National
Center on Educational Media and Materials for the Handicapped
(NCEMMH), from 1974 to 1977. By 1977 the file contained detailed
information on over thirty-six thousand instructional materials judged
appropriate for use by handicapped people and was being accessed on
a field trial basis by online computer terminals located in the thirteen
Area Learning Resource Centers (ALRCs), for Specialized Offices
(SOs), and the offices of the BEH in Washington, D.C. The file
information included a complete bibliographic citation, plus an
abstract of not more than 250 words, field test and evaluation data if
available, and descriptors specifying the handicapped population for
which the material had been judged appropriate.
All NIMIS I records are also contained in the Online Computer
Library Center (OCLC) files, searchable at least by author and title. (It
is interesting to note that the NIMIS file contained the first nonprint
materials to be loaded into OCLC and pioneered MARC formating for
subsequent entries.)
During this period, an Instructional Materials Thesaurus for Spe-
cial Education was developed by a Thesaurus Advisory Committee
under the auspices of NCEMMH, to be used both to index and to
access the materials in the file.^" However, since the underlying goal
of the support of these networks by the federal government over the
years was to build intrastate systems for continued provision of
needed services, access to NIMIS I began to be viewed as a task to be
undertaken by each state education agency, other agencies serving the
needs of handicapped learners, or both. So, in October 1977, when a
new contract for the development of a second generation data base,
NIMIS II, was awarded to the National Information Center on Educa-
tional Media (NICEM) at the University of Southern California and
NCEMMH had officially discharged its BEH contract obligations, the
new contract specified that the networking mechanism to be used to
access the NIMIS I interim database would be through each state
education agency (SEA) and specifically through their administrative
offices for handicapped education. The file was also to be released to
commercial vendors for service provision on a nonrestrictive basis. If
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School Library Media Services
a Regional Resource Center (RRC) was functional within the SEA
organization, it could also provide access on behalf of the SEA. The
intent was to leave the NIMIS I program intact and make it available
both through the SEA to a specialized audience (educators of the
handicapped population) and via commercial data base vendors to the
information and specialized library services field at large. This also
meant that users could continue to access the NIMIS I file while
NIMIS II was being designed, developed, and implemented by the
new contractor.
NIMIS II (NICSEM) Development. The development and im-
plementation of an "upgraded" NIMIS II data base by the National
Information Center on Special Educational Media (NICSEM) at the
University of Southern California was based on the encoding of edu-
cational media and materials to learner variables, specifically learner
outcomes. These data are precisely related to the individualized edu-
cation plan (lEP) to be developed for each handicapped learner and
assists the educator in identifying materials specific to each student's
needs as addressed in the lEP. The specificity of this prescriptive
approach to the selection of instructional materials was consistent with
the BEH thrust of technical assistance regarding implementation of the
lEP.
The NICSEM thesaurus is the access tool to the upgraded data base
and provides a more extensive hierarchical approach to indexing ma-
terials than its predecessor, the third edition of the Instructional Ma-
terials Thesaurus for Special Education .
Various products and services are available from NICSEM in sup-
port of the education of children with handicapping conditions. Sev-
eral brochures are available from NICSEM which describe the various
components of the data base system and how to access each compo-
nent. Basically, material is available in printed format, on microfiche,
or via commercial online computer systems. NICSEM's Master Index
to Special Education Materials in three volumes contains 40,000
bibliographic entries generally spanning the publication years of 1977
to 1980 and focuses on materials especially designed or adapted for
use by special learners. NICSEM's retrieval system has been designed
to be prescriptive and descriptive in its indexing of materials. There-
fore this Master Index has been structured to encourage the user to
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That All May Read
think in terms of learner objectives and related learner skills rather
than of the handicapping condition alone. This approach would appear
to be useful to school librarians involved in assisting in the selection of
materials to implement an lEP for a blind, visually handicapped, or
physically disabled learner.
A total of seventeen subsets of these materials are available from
the National Information Center for Educational Media (NICEM).^'
NIMIS II is also available online from Bibliographic Retrieval Ser-
vices (BRS). Depending upon the resources available in a particular
state, it may also be accessible online via the state office for education
of the handicapped or through other educational information centers.
The contract covering NIMIS II expired in September 1980, and at
this writing there are no plans to either update or continue input in
these data files. Therefore, while the materials each contains are ap-
propriate and useful to librarians working with blind and physically
handicapped people, they are dated and must be viewed with that
understanding. They do, however, represent a significant media re-
source and should be utilized to the extent possible.
Recording for the Blind, Inc.
Recording for the Blind, Inc. , (RFB) is a national, nonprofit or-
ganization which provides taped educational books, free on loan, to
blind, visually handicapped, and physically disabled elementary, sec-
ondary, college, and graduate students. The service is also available to
adults who require specialized reading material in pursuing their pro-
fessions or vocations. The RFB catalog for 198 1-82 includes over
50,000 titles of recorded books, and lists materials available in se-
venteen languages.
Recording for the Blind records books on request and in some cases
provides raised line drawings to supplement the text. There is no
charge for recording; however, two copies of the material to be re-
corded are required. Applications for service may be made directly by
the future user to RFB , or a librarian may apply on the user's behalf.
RFB does not supply or loan equipment, since several other organiza-
tions are engaged in that activity. Most of RFB' s material is recorded
on eight-track tape, however, so a compatible player is necessary.
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School Library Media Services
Information on all RFB recordings is also forwarded to APH for
inclusion in the Central Catalog of braille, large-print and recorded
materials.
Other Library Media Resources
Several other programs may assist in providing school library ser-
vices to blind, visually handicapped, and physically disabled people;
however, since their priority areas for funding may change periodi-
cally, they will be mentioned here only by the title of the legislation;
the state or federal office responsible for each may be contacted to
determine if needs could be met through funding a specific proposal
for services delivery. The legislation is the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, as amended. Title I, Education of the Disadvan-
taged;^^ the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended,
Title IV-B, Libraries and Learning Resources;^^ and the Library Ser-
vices and Construction Act, Title I, Services to Handicapped and
Institutionalized.^'*
The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare issued a
publication. Directory of National Information Sources on Hand-
icapping Conditions and Related Services, ^^ which also contains
much helpful data. It is currently being updated under Department of
Education auspices and should continue to be an excellent resource for
school media staff.
NOTES
1. U.S., Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education,
National Advisory Committee on the Handicapped, The Unfinished Revolution: Edu-
cationfor the Handicapped (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976),
p. 1.
2. James S. Kakalik et al. . Services for Handicapped Youth: A Program Overview
(Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 1973), pp. 92-93.
3. U.S.,Statutes at Large 89:773; Title 20, United States Code, section 1414.
4. Donald C. Adcock, "Media Services for Exceptional Children: Some Current
Practices in Illinois," Illinois Libraries 59:477 (September 1977).
5 . Joan Miller, ' 'Regionalized Support Services for Personnel Involved in Educa-
tion of the Handicapped," in The Special Child in the Library, ed. Barbara Holland
Baskin and Karen H. Harris (Chicago: American Library Association, 1976), pp.
165-168.
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That All May Read
6. Marie Meier, "The Psychology of Disability" (Speech at the Institute on
School Media Services to Exceptional Children, Palmer Graduate Library School of
Long Island University, August 1976).
7. Barbara H. Baskin and Karen H. Harris, Notes from a Different Drummer: A
Guide to Juvenile Fiction Portraying the Handicapped (New York: R. R. Bowker
Co., 1977).
8. See Jane Schultz and Rita Posner, "The Library/Media Center in a Children's
Hospital," School Media Quarterly d-.TlA-lie (Summer 1978).
9. See Ruth Velleman, "Library Adaptations for the Handicapped," 5c/ioo/ Li-
brary Journal 21:85-88 (October 1974); reprinted in The Special Child in the Li-
brary, pp. 15-18.
10. Eugene E. Bleck and Donald A. Nagel, eds. , Physically Handicapped Chil-
dren: A Medical Atlas for Teachers (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1975).
1 1 . Susan Jay Spungin, ed. , Guidelines for Public School Programs Serving Visu-
ally Handicapped Children (New York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1978);
Anne Lesley Com and Iris Martinez, When You Have a Visually Handicapped Child
in Your Classroom (New York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1977); and U.S.,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Children with Visual Handicaps: A
Guide for Teachers, Parents, and Others Who Work with Visually Handicapped
Preschoolers, developed for the Office of Human Development Services, Adminis-
tration for Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau, by Lou Alonso et al. ,
Mainstreaming Preschoolers (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1978).
12. An example of a card catalog which is brailledon one side and in large print on
the other can be seen at the New York State School for the Blind, Batavia, New York.
13. "Kurzweil Talking Terminal Announced," A'Mrzwei/ /feporf, Spring 1979,
pp. 1-2.
14. Edith C. Kirk, "Designing Desirable Physical Conditions in Libranes for
Visually Handicapped Children," in The Special Child in the Library, pp. 10-13.
15. See Carl W. Lappin, "At Your Service: The Instructional Materials Center for
the Visually Handicapped," Teaching Exceptional Children i:lA-l(i (Winter 1973);
reprinted in The Special Child in the Library, pp. 174-175.
16. National Society for the Prevention of Blindness, Data Estimates on Vision
Problems in the U.S. (New York: National Society for the Prevention of Blindness,
1980), part 2, Data Analysis, p. 3.
17. See Catherine B . Wires, "Books for Children Who Read by Touch or Sound,"
Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress 30: 159 (April 1973).
18. "Where Are Our Children?" 1978 National Conference of Librarians Serving
Blind and Physically Handicapped Readers: Special Report, Part I, NLS News,
special issue, n.d., p. 6.
19. Miller, "Regionalized Support Services for Personnel Involved in Education
of the Handicapped," in The Special Child in the Library , pp. 165-168.
20. Instructional Materials Thesaurus for Special Education, 3rd ed. (Columbus:
National Center, Educational Media and Materials for the Handicapped, Ohio State
University, 1976).
304
School Library Media Services
2 1 . NICEM is located on the campus of the University of Southern California,
University Park, Los Angeles, California 90007, and may be reached by telephone:
800-421-8711.
22. V.S., Statutes at Large SSA9Urn\e 20. United States Code, section 236 et
seq.
23. XJ.S., Statutes at Large 92:2143, 2236; Title 20, United States Code, section
3101 (Supplement 3, 1979).
24. U .S., Statutes at Large l&:l\:Tit\e 20, United States Code, sections 351-358
(1976).
25. U.S. , Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Directory of National
Information Sources on Handicapping Conditions and Related Sen'ices (Washington,
D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980). Currently in revision by the Department of
Education, Office of Special Education, Room 3119, Switzer Building, 400 Maryland
Avenue. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20202.
Glossary
achondroplasia — Inadequate bone formation resulting in a type of
dwarfism recognized by an enlarged head and disproportionately
shorter extremities.
albinism — A hereditary condition in which there is a lack of pigment
throughout the body, including the eyes. It is usually accom-
panied by a nystagmus condition (see below). Children with
albinism are very sensitive to light and sometimes wear tinted
glasses.
amputee — A person who sustains the loss of a limb or part. A con-
genital amputee is one who is born without one or more limbs,
attributed to constriction by an encircling band during in-
trauterine development.
arthrogryposis — A disease of the cells of the spinal cord which con-
trol muscle contractions, causing persistent flexure or contrac-
ture of the joints with resultant stiffness. May cause extensive
deformities.
astigmatism — Blurred vision caused by defective curvature of the
refractive surfaces of the eye, as a result of which light rays are
not sharply focused on the retina.
ataxia — Failure of muscular coordination.
cataract — A condition in which the normally transparent lens of the
eye becomes cloudy or opaque.
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That All May Read
cerebral palsy— A variety of chronic conditions in which brain dam-
age, usually occurring at birth, impairs motor control. Symp-
toms may range from mild muscle incoordination to more severe
physical handicaps, and often a degree of mental handicap. The
three types of cerebral palsy are: spastic (contracted muscles),
athetois (uncontrolled motion), ataxic (poor sense of balance).
Often a combination of these symptoms is present at one time.
Cooley's anemia — Hereditary blood disorder.
cystic fibrosis — A chronic lung disease, caused by abnormal mucus
secretions into the lungs and pancreas, and now known to in-
volve other organs as well. Life expectancy now, with better
treatment, is fourteen years.
epilepsy— A disorder of the central nervous system, causing seizures
or convulsions, resulting from uncontrolled electric discharges
into the brain. Seizures vary in type and severity.
familial dysautonomia — A genetic disease affecting primarily Jewish
families of Eastern European origin. Affects the part of the ner-
vous system which controls sensation and autonomic functions.
Causes lack of skin sensation, lack of tears, poor swallowing,
and other disorders. Victims rarely survive beyond their thirties.
Freidreich's ataxia — Progressive paralysis of lower limbs, ataxia,
and speech impairment.
glaucoma — A condition in which pressure of the fluid inside the eye
is too high. Depending upon the type of glaucoma, visual loss
may be gradual, sudden, or present at birth. When visual loss is
gradual, it begins with decreasing peripheral vision.
hemiplegia — Paralysis of one side of the body.
hemophilia — A hereditary disease affecting the ability of the blood to
clot normally.
hyperopia — A condition in which the eyeball is too short from front
to back, causing farsightedness.
hypotonia — A condition of abnormally diminished tone, tension, or
activity of the muscle.
ichthyosis — Dryness, roughness, and scaliness of the skin, resulting
from failure of shedding of the keratin produced by the skin
cells, present at birth.
Kugelberg-Welander's disease — A slowly progressive neuromus-
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School Library Media Services
cular disorder affecting children and adolescents and caused by a
genetic defect. One of the muscular dystrophy group.
lesion level — The area of the spinal cord that has been injured or
become diseased. The type of disability the patient has depends
upon the lesion level.
muscular dystrophy — Progressive atrophy of the muscles — no
known cure. Duchenne type is the childhood form usually found
in schools and is generally fatal in mid or late teens.
myopia — A condition in which the eyeball is too long from front to
back, causing nearsightedness.
nystagmus — Involuntary, rapid movement of the eyeballs from side
to side, up and down, in a rotary motion, or a combination of
these.
osteogenesis imperfecta — A defect in the metabolism of the bone,
causing a tendency to frequent fractures.
paraplegia — Paralysis of the lower limbs, due to birth defect, dis-
ease, or accident involving spinal cord injury.
poliomyelitis — An acute infectious virus disease, characterized by
fever, motor paralysis, and atrophy of skeletal muscles often
with permanent disability and deformity and marked by inflam-
mation of nerve cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Also
called infantile paralysis.
quadriparesis — Partial or complete paralysis of all four limbs. Also
called quadraplegia.
retinitis pigmentosa — A hereditary degeneration of the retina begin-
ning with night blindness and producing a gradual loss of
peripheral vision. Though some persons with this disease lose all
of their vision, many do retain some central vision.
retrolental flbroplasis (RLF) — Visual impairment caused by oxygen
given to incubated premature babies.
sickle-cell anemia — An inherited disease found only in blacks, indi-
viduals of black heritage, or persons of Middle Eastern ancestry.
It occurs when an altered type of hemoglobin is present in the red
blood cells, which take on a sickle shaped form. General
symptoms include attacks of weakness, jaundice, leg ulcers,
malfunctions of certain organs, and a lowered resistance to in-
fectious disease. Usually fatal before the thirtieth year.
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That All May Read
spina bifida — A birth defect. A malformation in which some of the
vertebrae of the spine fail to develop fully, causing insensitivity
in the lower extremities, incontinence, some degree of para-
plegia, and sometimes hydrocephalus.
strabismus — Eyes not simultaneously directed to the same object as a
result of an imbalance of the muscles of the eyeball.
308
Public Libraries
Donna Dziedzic
In discussing public libraries and the library service to those of us who
are blind and physically handicapped, it would seem helpful first to
describe the meanings of blind andphysically handicapped and the
services of the Library of Congress national network of libraries serv-
ing blind and physically handicapped people. Blind tends to make
people think of an individual who has no sight whatsoever. Physically
handicapped usually brings to rnind an individual who uses a wheel-
chair. These preconceptions are not wholly accurate with regard to
persons eligible for the library service provided through the national
network of libraries, since the network serves individuals with — and
institutions serving individuals with — a variety of conditions, includ-
ing blindness, but not necessarily wheelchair handicapped persons.
By law, persons are eligible for this service on a permanent or
temporary basis if they cannot read or hold conventional print material
or if they have a learning disability certified by a medical doctor as
being of physical origin. In addition to persons with apparent visual or
manual impairments, individuals with muscular dystrophy, multiple
sclerosis, arthritis, or paralysis following a stroke may be eligible.
Persons with conditions, such as cancer or heart disease, which leave
them too weak to hold a book, easily raise their heads, or generally
remain in a comfortable reading position for any length of time are
also eligible. Temporarily handicapping conditions — for example,
one or both arms in a cast or a recuperative period which precludes use
of the eyes — can make an individual eligible on a temporary basis.
Just as the eligibility requirements are established by law, so is the
certification process outlined by the same law. When an individual or
an institution requests service, the eligibility condition indicated must
be certified by a qualified individual. In most instances, this can be a
doctor, nurse, librarian, teacher, or any qualified professional who
Donna Dziedzic is regional librarian for the Illinois regional library.
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That All May Read
can reasonably assess and verify the existence and nature of the appli-
cant's condition. In the instance of a learning disability, however, the
law clearly states that the assessment of physical origin be made by a
medical doctor.
For the purpose of this chapter, blind and physically handicapped
will be used to describe those persons eligible for the service called
library service for the blind and physically handicapped.
There are, or should be, two primary avenues of library service for
blind and physically handicapped persons. One is the national network
of libraries serving blind and physically handicapped readers. The
other is the local community or public library.
Let us cover first the national network, its services and its structure.
Describing the library service itself is very simple. Books and maga-
zines in braille, cassette, and disc formats, as well as audio playback
equipment and accessories, are provided free to individuals and insti-
tutions eligible for service. Also provided are bibliographies of avail-
able titles and other related materials. This is the basic service pro-
vided by any library in the national network.
The structure of the national network providing this service has
several basic components. They are the Library of Congress's Na-
tional Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
(NLS), four multistate centers, the fifty-six regional libraries and the
101 subregional libraries (all in public libraries), and, informally,
other public libraries which cooperate by referring potential patrons,
housing demonstration collections, and in other ways. Each of these
agencies in some way provides or supports (or both) the basic program
of service offered through the network. The method of provision and
kinds of support can vary from agency to agency, depending on the
general functions of that agency as well as the local structure and
service philosophy.
There is a tendency to view any network such as this as a kind of
hierarchical structure. Some view this network as a typical triangle,
with NLS at the top and all other agencies in some kind of lower
position or classification. Others view the triangle in reverse, with the
local agency providing direct service to the public as being on top, and
all other agencies arranged lower in the triangle as their geographic or
service distance from the patron increases. Either of these concepts
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Public Libraries
presumes that there is some agency somewhere, which, by virtue of
being at the top of the triangle, can direct all other components of the
structure. There is no one agency within this structure with that kind
of control. It can be described better as a series of interlocking systems
differing in geographic scope, services provided, and public served.
The functions of these agencies are sufficiently interdependent that
any one agency could not perform its services satisfactorily without
the existence of the other kinds of agencies. In this sense, and in
practice, the structure is one that can be truly described as a highly
cooperative network.
The one agency that interlocks with all other agencies in the net-
work is NLS. Its primary public is the other agencies in the network.
NLS provides little direct service to individual patrons, except music
patrons and eligible U.S. citizens abroad, although its staff does try to
respond to patrons' requests, needs, and inquiries.
While NLS does not provide direct financial support to other agen-
cies in the network, it does provide millions of dollars in materials,
equipment, services, and other in-kind contributions. Perhaps the
most apparent of these contributions are the basic tools of the service.
NLS provides network agencies with the majority of their titles and
equipment, bibliographies, publicity tools, and other program-related
materials. Since these items are produced in large quantities, they can
be produced more cheaply. With a lower per-item cost, more can be
produced. More items produced means more items available to indi-
vidual and institutional patrons. Also, NLS is the one agency respon-
sible for the general specifications and production of these items. This
helps assure a uniform, and generally high, standard of quality for the
majority of items available through the network.
In addition to centralizing production of basic materials, NLS also
works toward centralizing and streamlining network support func-
tions. Efforts in this area cover a broad spectrum of network activities.
The net result of centralization of these functions is improvement of
service to the patron through providing methods of communication
that discourage inaccuracy and duplication of work effort, while en-
couraging accurate and prompt response to patrons' needs and re-
quests. Guidelines for service are also provided by NLS in both the
network library manual and the network bulletins which both update
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That All May Read
policy and procedure and disseminate useful information. Further as-
sistance is provided through network consultant services on both the
programmatical and technical aspects of the service on an as-needed
basis and through regularly scheduled on-site consultant visits.
Because of its central position in terms of network services and
because of its geographical area of concern, NLS is able to identify
national trends or problem areas. Response to a particular concern by
NLS staff will vary given the nature of and the most reasonable
solution to a situation. It can be as simple as a phone call or a network
bulletin providing information or advice. When appropriate, the re-
sponse could also be a serious long-term investigation of the problem
or a long-range plan for improvement, for example, NLS's recent
study conducted by the Harrison Institute for Public Law of the
Georgetown University Law Center to provide a comprehensive legal
analysis of the eligibility requirements for individuals with learning
disabilities. Another example is the long-range plan to provide an
automated system allowing prompt data exchange among network
agencies nationally.
The four multistate centers, located in Florida, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
and Utah, are the component of the network with perhaps the most
formal relationship with NLS. Their services to the network are pro-
vided on a contract basis. Multistate centers serve primarily the re-
gional libraries in their geographic areas. Their function is the ware-
housing of program materials such as books, machines, accessories,
program-related forms, bibliographies, and publicity materials. These
items are provided to regional libraries on an as-needed basis.
At first glance, such a warehousing function may not seem to be of
much direct benefit to patrons using the service. However, viewed in
terms of the unusual amount of space needed to store materials as-
sociated with this service and the fact that the service is provided
primarily through the mails, it becomes most important. Storage space
is both expensive and at a premium at most network locations. So, the
multistate centers pass on an indirect cost savings to the network
generally. This can be translated into more monies for other portions
of the service. Storage of materials at multistate centers can also help
alleviate crowded shelving conditions at local agencies, making it
easier physically to locate a book for a patron. If that book cannot be
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Public Libraries
found locally, it is possible to interlibrary-loan it from the multistate
center. Since the multistate centers are located relatively geo-
graphically proximate to the agencies they serve, books and other
materials have less distance to travel through the mails. Therefore, the
multistate centers do directly benefit the patron by increasing the
number of titles available, helping to assure prompt response to re-
quests, and providing cost and space savings.
The remaining portions of the network — regional libraries, subre-
gional libraries, and public libraries — can vary considerably in public
served, function, and philosophy of service. In the historical devel-
opment of the national network, the characteristics of these compo-
nents have been largely determined by the local service structure.
No regional library is a wholly independent agency. In addition to
its relation to other NLS network agencies, a regional library also has
a "parent" agency. The nature of this parent agency tends to define
the local structure into which the regional library fits. The parent
agency may be a state library, a public library, a private service
agency, a state department of education, or a commission providing
library and other services to disabled people. The parent agency is
important to the provision of service in a state in many ways. It may
provide funding to the regional library, although there often exists a
separate funding agency. The parent agency usually provides in-kind
service, administrative, or facility contributions. More importantly, it
usually establishes the service structure in the state as well as service
philosophies and emphases.
Illinois, I think, offers a good example of how the parent or funding
agency can significantly affect the pattern of service in a state.
At the turn of the century, the Chicago Public Library was provid-
ing library service to blind adults from an embossed collection re-
ceived as a gift. With the establishment of the Library of Congress
national program in 1931 , the Chicago Public Library was designated
as one of the first nineteen regional libraries. Within a year, the
service became a separate department within the Chicago Public Li-
brary, with its own staff, space, and resources, supported by the
Chicago Public Library's budget. This structure remained in place for
about forty years. It should be noted that in Illinois this service was
identified with library service and public service from its beginning.
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That All May Read
As service demand and scope of service increased, the concept of
the Chicago Public Library shouldering full financial responsibility for
provision of a service offered to all blind and physically handicapped
Illinois residents was recognized as inequitable and inadequate by the
Illinois State Library. At the same time, there was a growing realiza-
tion that the service offered through the regional library could not be
considered a complete library service, the provision of reading mate-
rials being the most basic and traditional of all library services.
In the mid-1960s, the Library Services and Construction Act
(LSCA) was amended to provide funding to state libraries for
strengthening service to blind and physically handicapped people. At
the same time, the Illinois State Library, long responsible for and
responsive to library development statewide, was beginning to estab-
lish a network of eighteen library systems to support library service at
the local level, primarily among public libraries in a geographical
area. When LSCA funds were provided through the state library to
these library systems to help with the development of library services
to handicapped readers along with other services supported by the
systems, the concept of subregionalism began to develop as a method
of decentralizing the services of the regional library.
Running through these developments can be seen several points
which would come to characterize the library service to blind and
physically handicapped readers in Illinois: involvement of the state
library in service development and funding, identification of services
to blind and physically handicapped readers with public library ser-
vices, and a philosophy of service provision at the local level.
By 1968, the Illinois regional library had received approval from
the Library of Congress to establish a network of subregionals in the
state. Since library systems were in existence and did have responsi-
bility for both traditional and special public library services, the state
library felt that the library system was a reasonable structure on which
to superimpose the burgeoning network providing service to the
handicapped. Each library system, then, also became a subregional
library supported programmatically by the regional library, adminis-
tratively by the library system, and financially by LSCA grants.
The library systems were able, at different rates of speed, to accept
responsibility for provision of service to eligible readers. As experi-
314
Public Libraries
ence with developing structure increased, several things became ap-
parent. Subregionalization allowed for significant increases in
readership and assured that service was distributed more equitably in
terms of both reader access to and agency responsibility for the pro-
gram. The need for continued funding was recognized as well as the
desirability of each system developing implementation of service pat-
terns responsive to particular local service needs and resources. By
1975, library services to blind and physically handicapped readers in
Illinois were well on the way to being integrated into a state network
supported by the state library and closely allied with public libraries
and local service. Both the regional library and subregionals were
funded by the state library and, given past history, were beginning to
develop into a cohesive statewide network.
While the particulars of the development of services to blind and
physically handicapped readers in Illinois are not the same as in other
states, they are indicative of how local structure, resources, and
philosophy can set the tone and pattern of services in a given geo-
graphical area. They also help explain why it is that the functions of
the various components of such service, particularly public libraries,
differ greatly from state to state.
Depending on the parent agency and development of services in a
state, the functions of the regional library can vary in geographic
scope, public served, and services performed. For example, some
regional libraries provide all services directly to all patrons in a state.
In other cases, a regional library may provide some services directly to
all patrons in the state, while referring them to other agencies for
braille service or audioplayback equipment. In states where the ser-
vice has been decentralized through subregionalization, the functions
of the regional library may also vary. It may provide all or some
services directly to patrons in a given geographical area, while coor-
dinating and supporting a network of subregionals providing similar
direct services in different geographical areas. In states like Illinois,
the regional library provides all services directly to the subregionals,
which are then responsible for providing service to patrons in their
geographical area. Other variations on this theme exist.
While this diverse pattern of service provision may seem somewhat
confusing at first, there are two important things to keep in mind.
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That All May Read
First, basic service is provided in all states in one way or another.
Second, the variety of service patterns and structures is neither good
nor bad. Rather, it is an indication of the ability to develop service in a
given geographical area in accordance with local resource patterns and
service needs.
Just as the functions of a regional library vary from state to state,
the activities of subregional libraries will vary not only from state to
state, but also within a state. Illinois again, can be used as a descriptor
of the variety of subregional activity. Most subregionals are responsi-
ble for the direct provision of service to patrons in their geographical
area. These subregionals maintain contact with patrons, circulate
books and distribute equipment and other items to patrons, and im-
plement programs designed to increase awareness of and about the
community served and all other programs associated with the provi-
sion of this service. Other subregionals, however, act as mini-
regionals. The public libraries in their system area serve as the point of
direct contact with and service to the patron. The subregional, in this
case, would provide the kinds of support services needed by their local
public libraries in maintaining and enhancing the service.
In the various activities of subregionals, the ability to assume the
characteristics of a local community can also be seen. An important
way in which the subregionals in Illinois differ is the manner in which
the local public libraries contribute to the service. Involvement ranges
from sufficient awareness of the service to provide appropriate referral
to actual provision of both NLS and traditional library service to local
patrons. Even in Illinois where the development and provision of
services to blind and physically handicapped readers have been
closely allied with public libraries, the correct descriptive word has
been involvement rather than obligation in discussing provision of
library service to disabled persons through public libraries.
As mentioned earlier, there should be two primary avenues of li-
brary service for blind and physically handicapped individuals, one
being the agencies associated with the national network of libraries
serving this population, which are geared to the provision of reading
materials in formats appropriate to their public, and the other being the
local public libraries, which provide a wide range of library services to
members of their community.
316
Public Libraries
This is to not to say that network hbraries have been negligent in
supplying to patrons programs of library service beyond the basic
provision of reading materials. Many have acquired the resources,
staff, and expertise to enhance this basic service with a variety of
activities. Some of these are not unlike those found in public libraries,
such as story hours; programming of an informational, educational, or
entertainment nature; reference and referral service; and conjunctive
activities with local educational institutions or museums. Others are
directly correlated to provision of service to blind and physically
handicapped readers, such as provision of aids and appliances, access
to equipment designed specifically for use by handicapped persons,
production of reading materials in special formats, radio reading ser-
vices, and conjunctive programs with agencies and institutions serving
the disabled.
Public libraries, too, have not been neglectful of the blind and
physically handicapped members of their community. Many have de-
veloped programs in conjunction with or separately from local net-
work agencies providing library service to the blind and physically
handicapped population. These programs are not unlike network li-
brary enhancements of service, ranging from extended traditional li-
brary service to programs designed to meet the specific needs of
members of the local community who are disabled.
A good many of these program enhancements provided by network
and public libraries have met with considerable success. Yet there is
something very important missing from all the programs that can be
described. Few have had as their planned or implemented long-term
goal an integration of network and public library services and publics.
Just as the entire national network providing library service to blind
and physically handicapped readers is viewed as a special service, so
are the activities presented by public libraries for the same community
considered at least non traditional, if not special.
Perhaps a primary reason for integration of services not being ef-
fected is that many of the individuals involved — network librarians,
public librarians, and consumers — are not convinced that integration
is a good idea. If you look at the historical development of the national
network of library services to blind and physically handicapped
readers, it is naUiral to come to a nonsupportive viewpoint concerning
317
That All May Read
integration. If, however, you start with the simple premise that blind
and physically handicapped persons have a right to as full a range of
library services as other members of the community and that all
librarians have an obligation to provide service to all members of their
community, it is easy to come to a different conclusion, that is, that
network librarians and public librarians have a responsibility to work
with each other to assure provision of all library services to blind and
physically handicapped persons.
The need to provide blind and physically handicapped persons with
library service of the same standard and scope available to other
members of the community is not at issue; it has been an integral part
of library service for some time. The very success of this concept,
however, has raised a formidable barrier to integration of services
and, therefore, to provision of a full range of library service to dis-
abled persons.
The idea of specialness was essential to the development of the NLS
network. In order to assure development and provision of some ser-
vices to the blind and physically handicapped community, network
practitioners needed to emphasize the idea that it was a special service
provided by specialists to a special community having special needs.
The successful use of this emphasis is evidenced in the development
of a recognized, established, and supported network of services for
that community. There is one major flaw in the success of the pro-
gram, however: the network does its job so well that it is considered
the library service for blind and physically handicapped readers, not a
library service for that same community.
The emphasis on being special served as a powerful tool in the
development of the basic provision of services to blind and physically
handicapped readers. It now stands as a primary barrier to providing
them with a full range of library services.
Many librarians in the network are considered specialists in the field
of library service to the blind and physically handicapped community.
A consequence of this is that these specialists can become a bit ter-
ritorial about their service and clientele. Because theirs are often the
only libraries providing service to the disabled in their area, they
sometimes begin to think of themselves and to be considered by others
as the only ones who can provide service. This situation is not condu-
318
Public Libraries
cive to their urging public librarians to take an active role in serving
the community nor to encouraging patrons to avail themselves of
public library services. On the other hand, public librarians see a
network designed solely to meet the reading needs of the blind and
physically handicapped reader, complete with staff, resources, and
expertise. The natural reaction is to steer handicapped people to this
service, fulfilling the service obligation through referral. This refer-
rather-than-serve reaction of many public librarians to disabled per-
sons is not so much an abdication of responsibility as a reaction to
what they have come to view as a special clientele requiring special
service. In many cases, they may feel that their own expertise or
resources are not sufficient to fill a special patron's special needs. As a
consequence, they do what they think is the best thing to do, refer the
special client to the specialists.
At a recent symposium, the director of the National Library Service
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Frank Kurt Cylke, com-
mented on the isolating effect of specialization:
In our work, we are never [considered] a part of the mainstream librarianship. We
have the largest and oldest network of libraries in the world, and we have the most
advanced technology in bibliographic retrieval, but when the library world talks about
networking, we are never mentioned. Others are not aware of our existence; in the
literature, in committees, the National Library Service is the invisible man. The
question remains: How do we train people-oriented people to serve a community
which needs information and recreation as much as the sighted, able-bodied commu-
nity, if not more so?"
Just as the national network of library service to the blind and physi-
cally handicapped is isolated from the mainstream of library services,
so is the community served by this network isolated from full enjoy-
ment of library services.
The remedy to this specialness, isolation, or segregation lies in the
mainstreaming of special services and special publics into traditional
library settings, the integration of the national network of library
services for the blind and physically handicapped with local public
libraries.
Just as there is no one agency which administers or directs the
national network, there is no one agency which can administer the
integration of special services to blind and physically handicapped
319
That All May Read
readers with local public libraries. Just as the national network is
strengthened by its ability to reflect local philosophies, resources,
needs, and structures, so can this flexibility and responsiveness be
used to further integration of services and publics. Just as the indi-
vidual components of the national network require the assistance and
existence of all other network components to provide a library service
to blind and physically handicapped readers, so the network agencies
need the cooperation and resources of public libraries to provide com-
plete library services to the disabled. In the same vein, public libraries
require the resources, expertise, and cooperation of network agencies
to be able to provide service to all members of their local community.
Effecting the integration of special services and publics may seem
at first an overwhelming task — particularly if it is viewed as a special
solution to the special problems of special service to a special commu-
nity. If, however, integration is viewed as simply an extension or
enhancement of the services provided and publics served by both
network and public libraries, mainstreaming becomes a concept that is
easier to digest and implement. It becomes even easier if done with the
understanding that neither public nor network librarians need to do
something special to effect integration. Each need only continue doing
what they do well, but with a slightly different focus.
Presenting a laundry list of what network and public librarians can
do to further integration is undesirable for several reasons. First, a
checklist can be just that, a list of things to do that, once judged
impossible, disagreed with, or complied with, stifles further creative
and realistic thought or action on the subject. Secondly, given the
ability of the network and of public libraries to utilize available re-
sources to respond to particular needs, a checklist might suggest a
solution which in many cases may be no solution at all. Thirdly, given
the differing creativity, resources, and local service needs, the var-
ieties of activities that could occur to effect integration are endless.
And finally, there exists a body of literature that does describe efforts
toward this end; some suggested readings are given at the end of this
chapter.
It was mentioned earlier that network and public librarians, in order
to accomplish integration, need only do what they already do well, but
with a minor shift in emphasis. Both need to continue to provide their
320
Public Libraries
respective services utilizing the resources available to them, and each
needs to expand its concept of its public.
Network librarians must mobilize their resources, expertise, and
information, not only to provide service to blind and physically handi-
capped people, but also to provide information, education, and sup-
port to public hbrarians in their area. In doing so, they must also
inform their old public, disabled persons, about their new public,
public libraries, and encourage the former to use the latter.
Public librarians must also utilize their resources, expertise, and
information not only to serve their traditional public but also to serve
members of their public who happen to be blind and physically handi-
capped. In doing so, they must provide information and education to
their old public, traditional public library users, about their new pub-
lic, blind and physically handicapped people.
Why should either network or public librarians do any of this any-
way? Because it benefits all of them and all of their patrons. Integra-
tion of services actually makes it easier to provide a greater range of
services and information to a greater portion of the whole public.
Integration of publics not only encourages acceptance and main-
streaming of the blind and physically handicapped community but also
serves to unite two isolated library publics into one group of people
called library users.
Rather than reinvent the public library service wheel for the benefit
of blind and physically handicapped persons, network librarians
should simply tap into public librarians. Rather than, for example,
developing from scratch a summer reading program for blind and
physically handicapped children, network librarians may serve their
publics better by working with public librarians with expertise in
summer reading programs and providing the resources and expertise
needed to offer such a program to both disabled and nondisabled
children.
By the same token, a public librarian may wish to reconsider plans
to develop a reference service specifically designed to meet the infor-
mation needs of blind and physically handicapped persons. It may be
more beneficial to develop an excellent program of reference service
for the community and to work with a local network librarian with
expertise in serving handicapped readers on developing methods of
321
That All May Read
making this service available, accessible, and of interest to disabled
and nondisabled members of the community.
As efforts are made to effect this integration of services and publics,
network libraries and public libraries 'vill each become less invisible
to the other's traditional patron groups. Traditional users of public
libraries will become more aware of the handicapped community and
network-related services. Traditional users of network libraries will
become more aware of public library users and services.
As this occurs, there is a good chance that the scope and quality of
service offered both sets of publics will be enhanced and expanded. If
public and network librarians continue to do their respective jobs well
within the context of intentional integration as has been provided in
the context of situational integration, it is very possible that both
traditional public library patrons and blind and physically handicapped
patrons will be supportive of library service — not library services to
blind and physically handicapped people or public library services —
but just plain library service. Think of the statement that a unified
public supporting an integrated service provided by a cooperative
profession can make to a local, state, or national governing body.
Public librarians have an obligation to serve all members of their
community. Network librarians have an obligation to see that the
community they serve has access to the fullest range of library ser-
vices possible. As long as both keep in mind that fulfillment of these
obligations requires no special or extraordinarily esoteric activities
and keep doing what they do well, it shouldn't be hard to do.
NOTES
1 . Krandall Kraus and Eleanor Biscoe, eds. , Summary Proceedings of a Sym-
posium on Educating Librarians and Information Scientists to Provide Information
and Library Services to Blind and Physically Handicapped Individuals, (Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, 1981),
p. 17.
Suggested Reading
The following sources were searched to select these suggested read-
ings on public library service to blind and physically handicapped
322
Public Libraries
readers: Library Literature, 1970 to June 1978; the ERIC database;
Current Indexes to Journals in Education, 1969 to June 1978; and
Resources in Education, 1977 to June 1978. Material on mobility-
and hearing-impaired individuals was included because, although
people with hearing impairments are physically handicapped and
people who are shut-ins are certainly handicapped with regard to
library services, that in itself does not render either group eligible for
the Library of Congress national program for blind and physically
handicapped people; public libraries have an important role in serving
them.
Amdursky, Saul J. "To Reach the Deaf." Illinois Libraries 57:468-
470 (September 1975).
"Blind Readers' Tastes Found to Be Different." Library Journal
94:1939 (15 May 1969).
Brown, Eleanor Frances. Library Service to the Disadvantaged.
Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1971.
Casey, Genevieve. "Library Service to the Handicapped and Insti-
tutionalized." Library Trends 20:350-366 (October 1971).
Casey, Genevieve. "Library Service to the Handicapped and Insti-
tutionalized: An Historical Perspective." Library Service for the
Adult Handicapped, edited by Lucille Whalen and Joan A. Mil-
ler. Information Reports and Bibliographies 7, no. 2
(1978):13-17.
Coyle, Michael P. "Orphans of the Library World." Catholic Li-
brary World 39:633-637 (May-June 1968). Edited and re-
printed in Library Services to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, edited by Maryalls G. Strom (Metuchen, N.J.: Scare-
crow Press, 1977), pp. 23-28.
Cylke, Frank Kurt. "Free National Program to Beef Up Services for
Blind and Handicapped." American Libraries 7:466-467
(July- August 1976).
Dalton, Phyllis I. "Are You Listening?" Illinois Libraries 57:473-
475 (September 1975).
Graham, Earl C. "Public Library Services to the Handicapped." ALA
Bulletin 61:170-179 (Febniary 1967).
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That All May Read
Grannis, Florence. "Philosophical Implications of Book Selection for
the Blind." Wilson Library Bulletin 43:330-339 (December
1968). Reprinted in The Special Child in the Library, edited by
Barbara Holland Baskin and Karen H. Harris (Chicago: Ameri-
can Library Association, 1976), pp. 29-34; and in Library Ser-
vices to the Blind and Physically Handicapped, edited by
Maryalls G. Strom (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977),
pp. 143-158.
Haas, Dorothy B. "That the Blind May Read." Wisconsin Library
Bulletin 62:152-154 (May-June 1966).
Hagemeyer, Alice. Deaf Awareness Handbook for Public Librarians.
Washington, D.C.: Public Library of the District of Columbia,
1975.
Hammer, Sharon. "Consumer Outreach." Library Service for the
Adult Handicapped, edited by Lucille Whalen and Joan A. Mil-
ler. Information Reports and Bibliographies 7, no. 2
(1978):33-35.
"Implementing Library Services for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped." Illinois Libraries 57:460-466 (September 1975).
"Inmates, Aging and Deaf are Targets of Outreach." Library Journal
100:257-258 (1 February 1975).
Jahoda, Gerald. "Suggested Goals for Public Library Service to
Physically Handicapped Persons." Rehabilitation Quarterly
20: 149- 154 (Winter 1980).
Jahoda, Gerald, and William L. Needham. The Current State of Pub-
lic Library Service to Physically Handicapped Persons . Tal-
lahassee: Florida State University, School of Library Science,
1980.
Javelin, Muriel C. "Talking-Book Service in the Libraries of the
Nassau Library System." Pennsylvania Library Association
Bulletin 27:74-78 (March 1972)'.
Library Service to the People of New York State: A Long-Range
Program, October 1 , 1978-September 30, 1983. Albany: New
York State Education Department, New York State Library, n.d.
"Library Services for the Blind and Physically Handicapped." Wis-
consin Library Bulletin 69:328-331 (September-October Sup-
plement, 1973).
324
Public Libraries
Luciolo, Clara E. "Bibliotherapeutic Aspects of Public Library Ser-
vices to Patients in Hospitals and Institutions." In Reading
Guidance and Bibliotherapy in Public, Hospital, and Institution
Libraries, edited by Margaret E. Monroe. Madison: Library
School of the University of Wisconsin, 197 1 .
Luciolo, Clara E. Trend toward Patnership: A Study of State Institu-
tion and Public Library Cooperation in Ohio. Columbus: State
Library of Ohio, 1976.
McCrossan, John A. Library Services for Indiana' s Handicapped.
Indiana Library Studies, edited by Peter Hiatt, report no. 8.
Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana Library Studies, 1969.
McCrossan, John A. , Raynard C. Swank, and Darlene Yacuzzo. Li-
brary Services for the Handicapped in Ohio. Kent, Ohio: Kent
State University School of Library Science, 1968.
Miller, Joan A. "Resources for Use in Providing Library Services to
the Adult Handicapped. " Library Ser\'icefor the Adult Handi-
capped, edited by Lucille Whalen and Joan A. Miller. Informa-
tion Reports and Bibliographies 7, no. 2 (1978):43-47.
Miller, Leola, F. "Publicity That Worked." Wilson Library Bulletin
36:564 (March 1962).
Needham, William L. "Academic Library Service to Handicapped
Students. " yoMrna/ of Academic Librarianship 3:273-279
(November 1977).
"Ohio Telebook Experiment: Dial a Recording." Library Journal
102:2209 (1 November 1977).
Parlato, Salvatore J. "Captioned and Nonverbal Films for the
Hearing-Impaired." Library Trends 27:59-63 (Summer 1978).
Posell, Elsa Z. "Libraries and the Deaf Patron." Wilson Library
Bulletin 5 1 :402-404 (January 1977).
Reed, Emily W. "Books by Mail at the Enoch Pratt Free Library." In
Books by Mail Service: A Conference Report, edited by Choong
H. Kim and Irwin M. Sexton. Terre Haute: Indiana State Uni-
versity, 1974.
Roberts, David J. "Library Services for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped.'' Pennsylvania Library Association Bulletin
25: 125 -128 (March 1970).
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That All May Read
"San Francisco Subregional: A Dynamic, People-Oriented Center."
NLS News 9, no. 4 (July-August 1978):4-5.
Skrzypek, Alexander. ' 'The Chicago Public Library Services for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped. " Illinois Libraries 54:296-
300 (April 1972).
Sutton, Johanna G. "Consider the Confined: Methods of Reaching
In." Wilson Library Bulletin 45:485-489 (January 1971). Re-
printed in Library Services to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, edited by Maryalls G. Strom. Metuchen, N.J.: Scare-
crow Press, 1977.
Swank, Raynard C. Library Service for the Visually and Physically
Handicapped: A Report to the California State Library. Sac-
ramento: California State Library, 1967.
Zabel, Ellen. "Services to the Blind and Handicapped: The Unmet
^eed." Kansas Library Bulletin 41 (1972), no. 2, p. 11.
326
Academic Library Services
John Vasi
In recent years, greater attention has been focused on the problems of
handicapped individuals participating in academic programs. Enact-
ment of what has become known as 504 legislation has forced insti-
tutions of higher learning to reevaluate or, in some cases, examine
thoroughly for the first time the accessibility of their facilities and
academic programs to students who have any of the mental or physical
handicaps covered by the legislation.' As part of these self-studies,
academic libraries have begun not only to examine their facilities and
bibliographic resources but also to evaluate their public service pro-
grams in an effort to provide, insofar as possible, responsive and
comprehensive library programs for the handicapped students enrolled
at their institutions.
Several checklists of items to consider in establishing or evaluating
programs for the handicapped student have been compiled. Kent
Kloepping includes in "Short- and Long-Range Planning for a Com-
prehensive Service System" a checklist of concerns for general edu-
cational programs, not just academic libraries.^ His article, however,
serves as an excellent background for those new to the concerns of
handicapped people and the problems they encounter in educational
settings, including universities. William Needham's "Academic Li-
brary Service to Handicapped Students" includes a checklist specific
to academic libraries, which may be used as a basis for an evaluation
of existing library services and facilities.^ Elaborating on such
checklists and specifications, however, is not as helpful as discussing
less concrete but equally valid issues which are harder to quantify.
These issues are the difficulties and questions that arise in designing or
improving services and facilities for blind and physically handicapped
students who are covered by 504 legislation and pose formidable
access and service problems to academic libraries.*
John Vasi is assistant university librarian for Administrative Services and Planning, at the University of
California at Santa Barbara.
327
That All May Read
Of the many factors to consider when discussing academic library
services to bUnd and physically handicapped students, the first which
may come to mind is physical access to libraries and their resources.
Though the recognition of architectural barriers in libraries and other
buildings has long been a concern of library planners and architects,
buildings which offer less than optimum conditions and access for
handicapped students continue to be constructed. In fact, new build-
ings which provide functional and comfortable settings for the handi-
capped are more often the exception than the rule. Citing actual situa-
tions may offer some insights. A second and more important factor is
a less easily defined issue — that of the level and type of service that
can be or should be provided to handicapped students by academic
libraries. Architectural barriers, although they present real and for-
midable problems for libraries, can be considered in quantitative
terms. It is possible to design a library that is totally accessible to blind
and handicapped students, but the cost of such a facility is usually
prohibitive. Academic libraries today are confronted with more basic
and philosophical questions addressing the commitment of library
personnel, collections, budgets, and special services for handicapped
students. The quality of service is more significant than the accessi-
bility of materials and facilities.
Accessibility of Facilities
The accessibility problems specific to academic libraries cited here,
for the most part, were designed into new buildings or modifications
of older facilities. In all cases, those individuals planning the facilities
were attempting to avoid just such barriers and problem areas.
Given the multilocation configuration of many academic library
systems on large campuses, the library staff must be sure that all
facilities are accessible from transportation routes generally used by
handicapped students. It can be assumed that most campus library
users will not reach the library by public transportation, as they might
public libraries. Either private automobile or specially designed trans-
portation provided by the school is most often used by wheelchair or
blind students to reach campus buildings. The questions to be asked
328
Academic Library Services
about all libraries on a campus are the same: How far is the parking lot
(or special handicapped parking facilities) from the library? Are there
conveniently located curb cuts for wheelchair users? Can special
parking areas adjacent to the building be constructed? Is the path from
the parking area or roadway free of obstacles or obstructions which
would prohibit handicapped users from easily reaching the building?
The solutions to the problems are usually straightforward but some-
times difficult, expensive, and time-consuming to implement unless
there is a joint commitment on the part of campus planners, the li-
braries, and the college or university administration to make facilities
truly accessible.
Three examples from one university point up the difficulties. Curb
cuts were designed to provide access from roadways to pedestrian
walkways leading to libraries and other campus buildings. These curb
cuts seem to have been designed to serve a dual purpose — providing
inclines for wheelchair users to bypass curbs as well as providing
ramps for bicycle riders. While the curb cuts posed no problems to
bicycle riders, the gradient, or slope, of the cuts proved to be too steep
for wheelchairs. There was no problem when a wheelchair was pushed
through the curb cut, but the angle was too steep for most wheelchair
users to negotiate alone. In fact, the curb cuts proved dangerous
because wheelchairs tended to rock backward too far when going up
the short but steep inclines. Moreover, the general access from the
parking lots to the main areas of campus proceeded along a seemingly
gentle upward incline of several degrees. Although this design is
aesthetically pleasing in that it places the academic buildings on a
small-scale Mount Olympus overlooking the rest of the campus, even
the slight incline posed definite problems and hardships when it had to
be negotiated in a wheelchair over 100 yards from parking lot to
building. Finally, along this same route, the university planted a
number of trees bordering the sidewalks. The trees, adjacent to walk-
ways, were surrounded at their base by open iron grating to allow
watering of the trees and to provide the capability of "knocking out"
ever increasing sections of the grates as the trees grew. Since the
pavement surrounding the gratings was at the same level as the
sidewalk, there was literally nothing to warn the visually handicapped
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That All May Read
student that he might be leaving the walkway and in danger of step-
ping into a hole in the open grating.
Several other examples will show how even good intentions can go
astray when individuals are trying to solve problems with which they
have little personal experience. A ramp specifically designed and
constructed to bypass an exterior set of stairs to a library building had
a 180-degree turn which was almost impossible for a person in a
wheelchair to negotiate due to the narrowness of the ramp. In another
instance, specially designed doors with pushbutton activators were
placed on the side of a building where prevailing winds pile up snow
for most of the winter, rendering the doors almost useless to wheel-
chair users — the intended beneficiaries of the new doors.
It is both interesting and disappointing to note that this campus was
designed specifically to meet handicapped access requirements. Cam-
puses pose special problems because there is rarely one person who is
responsible for overseeing construction and renovation in order to
ensure that handicapped access is achieved. Although planners might
take exception to that statement, it is quite true in reality. One cannot
assume that all aspects of handicapped access can be covered by
guidelines, checklists, and numerical specifications. The problems
above attest to what can occur when planners try to design safe and
accessible campuses but inadvertently include barriers to handicapped
students.
Campus planners are concerned with a variety of architectural,
safety, and aesthetic considerations. One cannot expect the gardener
designing the tree gratings to consider the problems that such a design
might pose for visually impaired students, nor can one assume that it
will always be possible to design sitework that will flatten out hills or
inclines on campuses. The point to be stressed here is that someone on
the library staff, knowledgeable in the problems of handicapped ac-
cess, should be involved in the design process for new construction
and renovation of facilities. It is not sufficient to design the library
beginning at the front door and working inwards from there.
Exit control is another problem especially prevalent in academic
libraries. In recent years, most libraries have been equipped with
electronic exit-control systems which have proven to be obstacles to
easy entrance and exit by handicapped users. The object of such
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Academic Library Services
systems is to channel exiting students through a specific exit gate
which will alert library staff to someone taking uncharged materials
from the building. Most detection systems use one-way turnstiles to
prevent users from exiting through the entrance doors and avoiding the
detection system. The turnstiles, which pose insurmountable problems
to wheelchair users, may easily be replaced with entry gates which
open automatically when one's weight activates a floor pad on the way
into the library. Replacing turnstiles with the gates described above is
a very expensive process, but installing the gates initially costs only
slightly more than the turnstiles. With more and more academic li-
braries being forced to install some type of electronic book detection
system, it becomes increasingly important to consider the necessity of
easy entrance and egress in both normal and emergency situations.
These examples demonstrate that alertness and interest are the main
ingredients in designing functional and useful areas for handicapped
students. While it is essential that both newcomers to barrier-free
design and those who have had experience in working with such
planning consult local and federal codes on design, one must always
remember that compliance with architectural codes is only the basic
step. Vigilance, common sense, and interaction with the handicapped
users themselves are all important prerequisites for truly efficient de-
sign. While local or state codes may vary, general information on
barrier-free design of facilities and furnishings is available in a
number of publications. Several of these should be read and kept
available for consultation when decisions are being made.^
Major decisions must be made when designing a library's equip-
ment, bookstacks, and furniture. It should be repeated that it is pos-
sible to design a library area, academic or otherwise, which is totally
accessible to handicapped users. The question is, Is the added cost
justified when the needs of the entire university or college are consid-
ered? For example, several sources recommend an aisle width in
bookstack areas of up to four feet to accommodate wheelchair use.^
Given the fact that a three-foot aisle is sufficient for stacks in a general
collection in an academic library, is it realistic to assume that a library
should be designed with larger aisles to accommodate wheelchair
users? Can research libraries afford to reduce stack capacities by per-
haps 25 percent in order to meet such a recommendation on aisle
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That All May Read
width?'' To carry the problem further, is it realistic to design a library
with all bookstacks at a height accessible to wheelchair users? By both
eliminating the top and bottom shelves which are already inaccessible
to such users and also implementing the wider aisles, a library reduces
by almost 50 percent the stack capacity that would result from pro-
viding adequate access for nonhandicapped users. Similarly, should
card catalogs be designed at a height to make them totally accessible
to wheelchair users, thereby increasing the amount of floorspace
necessary to accommodate the catalog area? I believe the answer to
such questions has to be no. As ideal as such situations would be for
handicapped users, the realistic answer is that libraries and uni-
versities cannot afford to construct or modify library spaces to provide
total accessibility.
The question of the greater good for the greater number must be
addressed when dealing with such situations. Although conventional
design of areas such as bookstacks limits freedom and accessibility for
wheelchair users, it cannot be assumed that libraries should forego up
to 50 percent of their potential collection capacity to accommodate
what may well be a minority of less than .5 percent of the total users.
Unquestionably, there is some degree of inherent unfairness in this
situation. Such unfairness can be mitigated, however, by other means
and services which can and should be offered by academic libraries to
handicapped users. The concept of functional accessibility, as op-
posed to total barrier-free design, may be the compromise needed.
Functional accessibility might be considered as a combination of pro-
grammatic accessibility and proper architectural accessibility. Several
interesting points are discussed in "Summary of Discussion and Work
Sessions on 'Planning for Architectural Accessibility,'"* which indi-
cates that functional accessibility may actually be preferable to com-
plete architectural accessibility because an idealistic approach by
campuses may not prepare handicapped individuals for situations they
will encounter later in the "real world."
Financial Considerations
It is easy to say that since a number of identifiable problems are
encountered in the use of academic library facilities by handicapped
332
Academic Library Services
students, the solution is merely to eliminate those problem areas.
Essentially, this is true, but what has never been fully addressed is the
cost of these modifications. These costs may be computed in absolute
or relative terms.
In the first instance, one may calculate the amount of money needed
to alter facilities and collection development policies to make the
library accessible and the collections usable by handicapped students.
The short answer to this is that it is not practicable for most academic
libraries. The cost of redesigned equipment and facilities or library
collections in nonstandard formats (braille, large print) would be pro-
hibitive and, as discussed above, might not serve the general interests
of the library and the nonhandicapped population which is its primary
clientele.
Secondly, the relative costs must be considered. If one assumes that
a library's budget is finite (not a risky assumption), then accommoda-
tions for handicapped users or any other category of special users must
come at the expense of the primary clientele. While some might take
exception to that statement, it is true for the vast majority of examples
one could provide. For example, the purchase of large-print materials
from the library's acquisitions budget must reduce the number of
acquisitions dollars available for other, more traditional, library ma-
terials.
Despite the best intentions of federal legislators, and despite the
genuine concern of campus administrators that handicapped students
should not encounter discrimination of any type in pursuit of their
studies, such an ideal simation is not economically feasible. The ulti-
mate aim that libraries, campus facilities, and university programs be
available equally to all students is unfortunately not practical at this
time. Those involved in academic endeavors, especially librarians,
should concentrate on making handicapped users as self-sufficient as
possible. However, access to collections and information is often most
practically accomplished through specialized services of the library
rather than changes in building design or collection formats.
If total self-sufficiency is not practical in library use, what can be
done to improve access to collections, encourage use of resources, and
provide services to handicapped users within the academic environ-
ment?
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That All May Read
What Can Be Done
University administrators and librarians find themselves in difficult
positions. The intent of 504 legislation mandating that barriers and
impediments to education for handicapped students be removed is
quite clear. The legislation addresses the problems, but it does not
address the ways that solutions to the problems can be achieved with-
out making extreme and perhaps impossible financial and operational
demands on the library.
Though the term mainstreaming is often used and though the con-
cept is one that all would like to see realized, mainstreaming of certain
categories of handicapped students may not be completely possible in
the library environment. Basically, the term refers to providing the
raw materials of education in such a manner that the handicapped
student may use them as any other student would use them. The ideal
of mainstreaming would allow all students, despite handicaps, to be
self-sufficient in the total library program. Considering the problems
cited above, this may not be feasible.
Although it may not be true in every instance, I presently know of
no academic libraries that have received funding which could be used
to provide the unrestricted access to collections, information, and
services that mainstreaming implies. For example, no funds have been
appropriated by the government to finance the cost of architectural
changes.^ Estimates of the cost of 504 implementation have ranged
from $2.4 billion, by HEW Secretary Califano, to $6 billion, as re-
quested in a 504 amendment by Congressman Jeffords of Vermont.^"
Libraries are not in a hopeless situation, however. Many ongoing
programs are offered by academic libraries to assist handicapped users
to become more self-sufficient in their library work and to move into
the mainstream of the academic environment. Library administrators
and public service personnel have instituted programs which are prac-
tical, feasible, and affordable and which comply with the intent of the
legislation, if not the letter of it. The recognition of the special needs
of handicapped library users is the first step.
Derral Parkin's study of academic library services offered to blind
students provides some insights as to what is available and what is
desired by bhnd and visually handicapped students. The desires of the
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Academic Library Services
students were for services and equipment that were neither costly nor
difficuh to obtain but were, for the most part, unavailable at their
libraries. The five most common suggestions by blind and visually
impaired students at Brigham Young University to improve their li-
brary work were:
Obtain an optical magnifier.
Develop a file of material and services available in the university
library and the state library.
Provide organized orientation sessions to the library.
Provide a braille map of the library.
Provide listening rooms in greater quantity in the library. (This was
the most common request.)
Of the thirty-six university libraries responding to the survey, 72
percent had no file of media available for visually handicapped stu-
dents and only 3 percent had a file which contained all three types of
media — braille materials, large-print books, and talking books.
Further suggestions were made, including a file within the library of
sources of current information describing library services available to
blind and physically handicapped students through state and national
agencies. Sources for acquiring braille materials, braille-book re-
views, talking-book tapes, and talking-book machines (all free of
charge) include the National Library Service for the Blind and Physi-
cally Handicapped of the Library of Congress, state libraries, and the
New York Library for the Blind."
Wright State University provides an example of an active and low-
cost program. The Office of Handicapped Student Services and the
Library Media Services merged to take on the responsibility of taping
texts needed by blind students for classroom reading assignments. The
problems encountered by blind students at Wright State paralleled
those of students at other institutions. Although national taping centers
supply audiotapes of academic materials to blind students, the com-
mon problems encountered include: a lack of immediate access to
material in braille; a short time period between notification of book
requirements and the start of class; and the use of texts in other than
regular chapter sequence. Accepting its responsibility to provide us-
able and timely materials to all university students, the library set up a
taping center of its own. Students and volunteers were taught to tape
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That All May Read
material correctly — for example, the proper introduction of material,
how to indicate footnotes, and how to indicate change of page or
chapter. Moreover, library workers explained to faculty the impor-
tance of getting book lists to the library four weeks before the begin-
ning of the semester and also of providing the library with course
syllabi so that tapes and chapters could be prepared in the proper
sequence. The library staff enjoyed total cooperation from the faculty,
even to the point of receiving personal copies of difficult-to-obtain
materials for taping sessions. Several faculty members volunteered to
tape technical or difficult material themselves, and many used the
contact with library staff to indicate that the handicapped students
should see them if any problems occurred or if they were falling
behind in reading assignments or coursework. The taping center at
Wright State proved to be a totally positive and effective service.'^ A
program similar to the one at Wright State was established at
Moorhead State College in Minnesota, using only volunteers for the
taping sessions.'^
Two basic steps should be followed in setting up programs for the
handicapped students in libraries. Although the steps may seem self-
evident, many times they are not completed or even considered. It is
essential that the library staff meet with handicapped students or their
representatives in order to ascertain what services are desired or
needed, and at what locations. There are no "model" programs which
should be instituted or followed. Service is best provided on an indi-
vidualized basis, making maximum use of input from the actual con-
sumer of the information. Secondly, program goals and objectives
should be spelled out; services should not be offered merely in re-
sponse to crisis situations. The program statement allows the library
the opportunity to plan the use of its resources and personnel, and it
also allows handicapped students to know what may be expected and
to schedule their time and plan accordingly. The organized plan of
services and resources available allows students to take greater control
of their education, to become more self-sufficient in the library set-
ting, and to be aware of what the library has to offer. Moreover,
correlating suident requests with services provided may eliminate un-
necessary or redundant efforts at various locations."
Due to difficulties encountered in the past in similar contexts,
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Academic Library Services
handicapped students may be reluctant to use the academic library and
even more reluctant to approach library personnel with requests for
information or material beyond that supplied to nonhandicapped
users. Most campuses have set up a specific office to assist handi-
capped students in a variety of ways, and that is perhaps the best place
to start when setting up a program for library users. Questions which
may be answered by such an office include: What is the size of the
handicapped population enrolled at the university? What are the types
of handicaps that exist? In which academic programs are handicapped
snadents enrolled? And, possibly, what special library needs exist
among the handicapped students? The office of services for handi-
capped students will probably have a listing of only those students
who volunteered information about their handicaps. Since it is against
the law to request such information on college applications, the office
will be able to ascertain what handicaps exist only by requesting the
information from all students. At the State University of New York at
Buffalo, the Office of Services for the Handicapped feels that a sig-
nificant proportion of handicapped students on campus never utilize
its services or make their problems known. When information on
handicaps is gathered, however, the library can begin the interactive
process with the students themselves, and a statement of goals and
objectives can be begun.
Due to the wide range of needs of handicapped students as well as
their different schedules, it is imperative that students' needs be dealt
with on an individual basis. Even though it might initially seem desir-
able to establish comprehensive programs to assist students, most of
their library needs are more successfully met by individual assistance
from one or more members of the library staff. It is clearly not practi-
cal for each library to have all equipment, resources, and personnel
available to respond to special needs of handicapped students at all
hours the library is open. An aggressive program by the library to find
out the needs of the students is the most important step, followed by a
meeting with each student and a discussion of the abilities of the
library to meet his or her needs. Another important result of such
meetings should be an understanding by the students of how to make
their needs known in the future.
A good starting point is for each library to name a contact person for
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That All May Read
handicapped users in the library. The contact person would take the
initiative to set up a meeting or orientation tours for individuals or
small groups of students. From this initial meeting, it is possible to get
an overview of student needs. Follow-up meetings with students can
tailor services more specifically or provide suggestions for assistance.
For example, while a library may not be able to order a collection of
large-print materials for a visually impaired smdent, it might be pos-
sible to place an optical magnifier in a specific library where a student
or several students feel it is most accessible or useful for their sUidy
needs. Similarly, the library contact person could arrange times con-
venient to students when a reader would be available to work with
them in the library.
A great many needs and requests of students center on the inability
of some handicapped students to reach libraries without time-
consuming and difficult trips. A program of extended telephone refer-
ence service may be quite beneficial to handicapped students, as
would a service to retrieve and mail out materials requested over the
phone. While such accommodations do not meet all library needs,
they reduce routine trips to the library for known titles and articles that
students need, such as reserve reading assignments.
One large university found that the range of service requests from
handicapped students was quite broad and varied, but, over a two-year
period, in only one instance was it felt that a student was requesting
services from library staff that bordered on having the staff do work
that the student himself should have been doing. That request was
denied and the parameters of the services that the libraries could
provide were discussed again with the student. There was no other
occasion when the library felt the requests were unreasonable or be-
yond the ability of the library and its staff to provide.
The library contact person cannot be charged with serving the needs
of handicapped students at all times single-handedly. This person
should act as the vehicle for handicapped users to make their needs
known to the library. Staff awareness and cooperation in providing
assistance is necessary; any student is entitled to the expertise avail-
able in all library departments. Therefore, it is the task of the contact
person, not to assist the student with all library needs, but rather to
send the student to the individual who can be of most assistance. This
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Academic Library Services
role of expediter is a critical one, reinforcing the necessity of com-
mitment on the part of the entire staff of the library.
Initially, it seemed to many libraries that the solution to meeting the
needs of handicapped students lay in identifying individuals on the
staff with specific talents and experience to work with students re-
quiring individualized services. In some cases, this has proven to be
quite useful. A librarian trained in signed English communication with
a deaf student is invaluable in many instances, for example. What has
generally proven to be more practical and effective, however, is the
cooperation of the entire staff in meeting student needs. Working out
arrangements and discussing staff involvement in programs for handi-
capped students should be a regular and planned activity, with the
library contact person addressing the staff as a part of library staff
meetings or in regular sessions with the public services staff or ad-
ministration, when necessary.
The multilibrary configuration of many academic libraries may re-
quire a central area which consolidates equipment or special materials
needed by handicapped users. Due to the expense of certain equip-
ment, it is probably not feasible to supply all libraries on a campus
with all desirable equipment. While in many cases it will be necessary
to have a handicapped student use certain resources at a specific
location, it may also be beneficial and economically feasible to set up
certain areas which house tools and resources most helpful to handi-
capped students. For example, an area with resources for low-vision
or blind students can be set up in the library most easily accessible to
such students. This area could contain minimally those tools most
commonly used by that group — perhaps an audible calculator, a
talking-book machine, a braille writer, a large-print typewriter, and an
optical magnifier. Special-task lighting might also be provided. This
equipment could be used by visually impaired students with a variety
of library or nonlibrary material. Such an area can function not only as
a special equipment room but also as a general library study area, just
as carrels and tables serve nonhandicapped students. Providing a study
room containing those tools and resources needed by visually im-
paired students is surely a minimal and essentia! commitment on the
part of an academic library to make itself useful and accessible. It
should be noted that a library is intended to provide, among other
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That All May Read
services, usable and comfortable study space for students, whether or
not such an area is used with library materials.
Funding and Budgets
As library budgets are prepared for future years, it is important to
identify and isolate funding specifically designated for the improve-
ment of services to handicapped students. It is not wrong to take
advantage of politically or educationally sensitive issues when draw-
ing up budget justifications, especially when the end result of in-
creased funding is such a positive and rewarding one. When federal
and state governments enact legislation designed to assist handicapped
students receive a meaningful education, then one must assume a
similar commitment to fund such improvements adequately. Indeed, it
is a responsibility of campus administrators and librarians preparing
budget requests to make known what is needed to implement im-
proved programs for handicapped users. Isolating budget items re-
quested specifically for improvement of services to handicapped li-
brary users serves a dual purpose. First, it shows those in a position to
allocate funds what the expenses really are. In many cases, equip-
ment, building rehabilitations, or specialized bibliographic materials
are more expensive than expected by those unfamiliar with such costs.
Secondly, separate budget requests indicate that a library does not
mean to utilize part of its ongoing budget for special services, thereby
reducing service programs or collections for traditional users. In short,
administrators of educational programs should not attempt to absorb
all additional expenses in the existing budget. In most cases, it is
necessary to use some general library funds for such improvements,
but this should not preclude the library from preparing specific and
separate budget requests each year for this use.
However, good service programs for handicapped students are not
entirely dependent upon persuasive budget justifications. As noted
above, staff awareness and commitment is probably the single most
effective aid. Pressure on legislators should not be discounted,
though. A law enacted in California reimburses universities a specific
amount for each disabled student enrolled and was thought to be a
system worth considering by other states.'^ Also, volunteer, charity,
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Academic Library Services
and community groups are organized in many instances specifically to
assist handicapped persons and may look favorably on requests for
help from educational institutions. The assistance may come in the
form of funding, volunteer services, transportation, or equipment — all
of which can become important components in overall service pro-
grams. Aside from contacting organizations such as Rotary and Lions
Clubs and state agencies concerned with rehabilitation, the library
should also discuss its specific needs with the university office which
deals with grant funds and other nonuniversity sources of financial
support.
Assistance from Library Director
Since many academic libraries function as separate library units tied
together by a central administration, a central coordinator for services
to handicapped users may be needed in large academic libraries. It
would be ideal to have the services of a coordinator on a full-time
basis, but the realities of dwindling staffs in higher education make
such a situation unlikely. Realistically, a coordinator of services to
handicapped students should be selected from a central staff, perhaps
part of the library director's office, and should be versed in a number
of areas of library administration and service programs. This indi-
vidual could coordinate the efforts of the contact persons at all libra-
ries and provide the thrust and experience to develop university-wide
services, when necessary.
Heading a committee made up of library contact persons, repre-
sentatives of the university's handicapped students office, and handi-
capped library users, the coordinator can decide how the limited re-
sources of the system can best be used and in what locations services
and equipment can be most helpful. The coordinator should also func-
tion as a representative of the director in reviewing possible sources of
grants or other assistance and as a liaison with community groups or
other organizations which could be contacted for resources. The coor-
dinator can also be effective as the representative of the library who
deals with campus agencies (such as maintenance, facilities planning,
security police, and campus transportation agencies) to effect the
changes needed to respond to special needs.
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That All May Read
Central coordination is helpful for improved service programs, as-
signment of equipment, and overseeing a coherent policy of collection
development for materials for the handicapped. It is not reasonable to
assume that several individuals working in separate libraries can de-
velop a consistent philosophy or coordinated service programs without
leaving some gaps at times and providing redundant services at others.
A number of centrally coordinated programs have been effective in
improving service. At the State University of New York at Buffalo,
the Office of Services to the Handicapped provided a list of students
eligible for special library services. The library instituted a photo-
copying service at no cost to handicapped students who had difficul-
ties reaching the library, allowing them to phone in requests for spe-
cific materials to be sent out through campus or U.S. mail to their
residence. The Office of Services to the Handicapped reimbursed the
library's cost for photocopying (with federal grant money) and the
library paid the postage, when necessary. This truly inexpensive pro-
gram has been extremely well received and provides a service which is
valuable far beyond the resources invested. Also, the library system at
Buffalo prepared for the first time recently a supplement to the tradi-
tional guide to library services, specifically for handicapped students;
it lists services, contact persons, accessibility information and mate-
rial on tours and orientation programs for handicapped library users.
The university is reproducing the supplement in braille and on au-
diotape.'®
Central coordination may be quite helpful in providing readers for
visually impaired students in the library. Providing readers is an ex-
cellent example of a service mandated by the federal government
without regard to funding implications for libraries or universities.'^ It
is not feasible to have readers available at all times in all libraries, but
a central coordinator can schedule readers to meet smdent needs at
specific times in specific locations. Another benefit of central coordi-
nation of readers is the reduction in training and interview times. If
federal work-study students are available, the cost of the service is
minimal, an extremely worthwhile service is instituted, and the intent
to comply with legislation is affirmed, even though readers are not
available at all times. Functional accessibility is achieved.
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Academic Library Services
Final Thoughts
Just as good library service to handicapped people necessitates com-
mitment from all levels of the library staff and organization, positive
learning situations and responsive educational programs require coor-
dinated efforts from all branches of the university community. Indi-
viduals within the library who have prime responsibility for develop-
ing library services to the handicapped user should enlist the aid of
other campus agencies which can provide information and support.
Although the programs discussed involve some added responsi-
bility, it is reassuring and pleasing to note that libraries still function
as central information and directional agencies. Students have come to
expect assistance from libraries for a variety of educational and infor-
mational needs, some of which have little to do with academic pro-
grams or library collections. Despite the existence of campus agencies
established to assist handicapped students, libraries will continue to
function as general information sources for these sUidents for reasons
of tradition or, more pragmatically, because libraries are open at hours
when other campus agencies are closed.
It is unfortunate, but true, that many higher education institutions
did not aggressively attempt to serve the needs of handicapped stu-
dents adequately until compliance with legislation forced a review of
the situation. Without specific federal or state funding available to
finance the physical modifications of academic libraries implied by
504 legislation, library staffs are being challenged to develop collec-
tions and services to meet specialized needs. Efforts to meet these
challenges within existing resources have usually proven to be very
successful at those institutions which are committed to provide re-
sponsive services and functional facilities.
NOTES
1. Rehabilitation Act of 1973, P. L. 93-1 12, Section 504, U.S. Statutes at Large
87:357; Title 29, United States Code, section 794, ( 1976). As amended, 504 legisla-
tion basically prohibits discrimination, exclusion, or denial of benefits against other-
wise qualified handicapped individuals by any program which receives federal finan-
cial assistance or under any program or activity conducted by any executive agency of
the federal government or by the U.S. Postal Service.
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That All May Read
2. Kent Kloepping, "Short- and Long-Range Planning for a Comprehensive Ser-
vice System," in Proceedings of the Disabled Student on American Campuses:
Ser\'ices and the State of the Art, ed. Pat Marx and Perry Hail (Dayton: University
Publications, Wright State University, 1977), pp. 55-59.
3. William L. Needham, "Academic Library Service to Handicapped Students,"
Journal of Academic Librarianship i-.TTi-ll^ (November 1977). This article is
especially useful because the checklist attached covers a range of considerations, not
merely architectural and bibliographic guidelines.
4. Many examples in the text are based on personal knowledge gained at the State
University of New York at Buffalo, University Libraries.
5. See, for example; U.S., Department of Housing and Urban Development, Of-
fice of Policy and Research, Barrier Free Site Design (Washington, D.C.: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1975); Phyllis Tica and Julius Shaw, Barrier-Free Design:
Accessibility for the Handicapped (New York: Institute for Research and Develop-
ment in Occupational Education, 1974); and Stephen H. Kliment, Into the
Mainstream: A Syllabus for a Barrier-Free Environment (Washington, D.C.: Ameri-
can Institute of Architects, 1975).
6. For example. Making Facilities Accessible to the Physically Handicapped:
Performance Criteria (Albany, N.Y.: State University Construction Fund, 1967),
p. 22.
7. John Vasi, "Building Libraries for the Handicapped: A Second Look." Journal
of Academic Librarianship 2:82-83 (May 1976); reprinted in Library Services to the
Blind and Physically Handicapped, ed. by MaryallsG. Strom (Metuchen, N.J.;
Scarecrow Press, 1977), pp. 174-177.
8. "Summary of Discussion and Work Sessions on 'Planning for Architectural
Accessibility, ' ' ' in Proceedings of the Disabled Student on American Campuses,
pp. 43-44.
9. "Summary of Discussion on 'Financing: Who Pays for What?'" in Proceed-
ings of the Disabled Student on American Campuses, p. 226.
10. Clarence J. Brown, "Postsecondary Education and the Disabled Student: A
Focus on the Future," ir\ Proceedings of the Disabled Student on American Cam-
puses, pp. 3-7.
1 1 . Derral Parkin, The University Library: A Study of Services Offered to the
Blind (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, Graduate Department of Library and
Information Services, 1974).
12. Pat Marx and Ralph Calder, "Merging Handicapped Student Services with
Library Media Services at Wright State University," HRLSD Journal 2:7-9 (Fall
1976).
13. "College Establishes Record Library for Blind Students," Rehabilitation Lit-
erature 32:286 (September 1971).
14. Thomas R. Shwories, "Guidelines for Program Operation: A Focus on Princi-
ples," in Proceedings of the Disabled Student on American Campuses, pp. 11-14.
15. "Summary of Discussion on 'Financing: Who Pays for What?"" mProceed-
ings of the Disabled Student on American Campuses, p. 226.
344
Academic Library Services
16. Guide to the University Libraries: Supplement for Handicapped Students
(Buffalo, N.Y.: University Libraries, State University of New York at Buffalo,
1977).
17. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 45, section 84.44 (d) (1) and (2) stipulate
"educational auxiliary aids for students with impaired sensory, manual, or speaking
skills" and "readers in libraries for students with visual impairments," respectively.
345
Training and Research in Librarianship
Kenneth L. Ferstl and Merrillyn C. Gibson
Public Law 94- 142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act,
enacted in 1975, enables many physically handicapped students to
attend public schools. The act mandates that public schools must
educate all handicapped children in regular classrooms along with
nonhandicapped children except where placement elsewhere is clearly
indicated. The law also requires that schools must provide appropriate
services for all handicapped children or see that the proper support
services are made available from other local agencies within the
school district. There must be an exchange of skills and programs and
a pooling of resources if handicapped students are to receive the
education to which they are entitled. This cooperation and coordina-
tion must include school media centers, public libraries, and learning
resources centers in community and four-year colleges. Handicapped
children should now be using public libraries and libraries in educa-
tional settings accordingly. As mainstreaming increases, librarians in
all types of libraries will need to develop a greater awareness of and
sensitivity to the needs of the handicapped student. Librarians will
need to update their own skills where they are found lacking. Aware,
sensitive, and skilled professionals provide the key to successful pro-
grams and services which seek to meet the needs of the handicapped.'
Physically handicapped people are presently being employed in a
diversity of occupations and professions. This trend will undoubtedly
continue due to the affirmative action policy for handicapped persons
which was established by Section 503 of the Rehabilitation Act of
1973 (Public Law 93- 112). Under this law, every employer doing
business with the federal government under contract for more than
$2,500 must take affirmative action to hire qualified handicapped
people. The law applies to job assignments, training, promotions.
Dr. Ferstl is assistant professor at the School of Library and Information Sciences. North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas. Merrillyn C Gibson is a reference librarian at the National Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped, the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
347
That All May Read
transfers, termination, accessibility, and working conditions and cov-
ers all levels of employment, including executive positions. In the
aftermath of a federal requirement affecting thousands of companies,
new jobs and training opportunities are available to the disabled
worker. It is reasonable to assume that handicapped workers will
make use of specialized libraries located in the place of their employ-
ment or of community public libraries in connection with job training
and the development of occupational skills or expertise. Librarians in
these libraries should become aware of the needs of this clientele and
should gain the skills and expertise to serve it properly. In many
instances, handicapped persons will become a part of library staffs and
will provide invaluable insights into serving the handicapped worker.^
Of special impact for libraries is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973 and the amendments of 1974 which require that "no
otherwise qualified handicapped individual . . . shall, solely by reason
of his handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the
benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or
activity receiving Federal financial assistance."^ This regulation
applies to all recipients of funding from the Department of Health and
Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Education — recipients
which include schools, colleges, hospitals, and libraries. Where
necessary and possible, program adjustments must be made to ac-
commodate an individual's handicap. Handicapped individuals must
be given equal opportunity to participate in programs or activities in
existing facilities, which must be made accessible. Structural changes
must be made if there is no other way for a program to be made
accessible. However, compliance does not automatically mean that
facilities must be altered. Some alternative arrangements are accept-
able, but priority should be given to an integrated environment in
which both disabled and nondisabled individuals may participate.
Every program, when looked at as a whole, must be accessible in the
most integrated, least segregated manner. Approaches to accessibility
which have been suggested by HHS and the Department of Education
for libraries include the use of bookmobiles, messenger services, and
home visits, and the provision of ramps. Librarians must become
348
Training and Research
aware of the means through which all library programs and services
can be made accessible to handicapped people, thus enabling them to
become active participants in those services and programs.
In addition to pinpointing discrimination, these laws require defi-
nite action. They mandate free, individualized education programs in
existing school facilities; the right to employment, with emphasis on
an individual's ability to do a specific job; and the provision of auxili-
ary aids. These staUitory demands recognize that individuals with
special needs, categorized as handicapped, are unique citizens who
can lead productive lives and that such expanded civil rights call for
basic changes in society.'*
If handicapped people are not making use of libraries, it may be
because they have not received the services or materials to which they
are entitled when selecting the library as the agency to assist them in
meeting their informational, educational, or recreational needs. As
Eleanor Brown has observed, "most librarians have not had the spe-
cial training needed to work with the physically handicapped most
effectively."^ In many instances, it is the lack of special training
which is at the root of ineffective library services to handicapped
persons. Genevieve Casey provides some specifics related to special
training when she states that what is "needed are additional study on
the reading interests and needs of the blind and physically handi-
capped, technological research, and more librarians especially pre-
pared to work with this group," as well as "more continuing educa-
tion such as has been offered in the USOE [U.S. Office of Education ]
institutes" and "more emphasis on this special service in the basic
curricula of the library schools."®
Students in library schools must be made aware of both the pos-
sibilities for and the problems of library services to handicapped li-
brary users. Issues which should be considered for presentation to
these soon-to-be practitioners include: available library services, pro-
grams and equipment; appropriate reference materials; standards of
accessibility for library buildings and facilities; employment of dis-
abled persons on library staffs; and maintenance of referral services to
sources of appropriate information and aid within the community.
349
That All May Read
Educational Programs
The National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped (NLS) conducted a survey in June 1976 to determine which
ALA-accredited library schools offered special courses, seminars,
workshops, and institutes to prepare librarians to serve handicapped
clientele/ The schools were resurveyed in December 1978 to update
the findings of the previous study. Each of the sixty-three ALA-
accredited library programs in the United states and Canada, as listed
in the 1978 directory of the Association of American Library Schools,
was surveyed.^ Sixty-three of the schools (100 percent) responded to
the request for data. The results of those returns are summarized in
Table 11-1. (Results of a resurvey by the NLS in October 1980 are
included in Appendix D.)
TABLE 11-1
1978 NLSSurvey of Special Programs to Prepare Librarians
to Serve Handicapped Individuals
Total number of schools surveyed
Response to questionnaire
No response to questionnaire
Formal Courses
a. Presently offered
b. Planned in future
c. Not planned
Special Institutes
Workshops and/or Seminars
a. Presently or recently conducted
b. None conducted but willing to sponsor
c. Not interested in sponsoring
Specialized Independent Study
Number
Percent
of
of
Schools
Schools
63
100
63
100
0
0
12
19
13
21
38
60
2
3
10
16
50
79
3
5
3
5
Twelve of the responding schools ( 19 percent) offered formal and
specialized courses of instruction to prepare librarians for serving
physically handicapped readers. Such coursework included the study
350
Training and Research
of issues, library programs and services, types of media, and the
special needs of serving a physically handicapped clientele. Three of
these courses gave special attention to rehabilitation; two courses em-
phasized bibliotherapy. Two schools offered specialized programs in
the sUidy of gerontology . One school offered a post-master's certifi-
cate program made up of a series of courses, practicums, tutorials, and
an internship.
Forty-eight schools (76 percent) reported that, although they of-
fered no separate courses in this area, the discussion of services to
disabled library users was included as a part of course offerings on
such subjects as library services to adults, library services to the
disadvantaged, public library management, seminar in public ser-
vices, and services to special groups.
Fifty -one of the schools (8 1 percent) reported that specialized
courses were not being offered. Of these schools, thirteen (21 percent)
indicated that plans were underway to offer specialized coursework in
the future.
Thirty-eight of the schools (60 percent) which were not offering
coursework at the time of the survey indicated that they had no plans
to incorporate courses relating to library services to physically handi-
capped people in their curriculum in the future.
Two schools (3 percent) reported offering week-long specialized
institutes to prepare librarians to serve handicapped library users ef-
fectively. Instruction in these programs consisted of lectures by ap-
propriate guest speakers, films, demonstrations of equipment and
aids, discussions of issues and problems, and an examination of
existing facilities and services. The respondents indicated that the
provision of such institutes was dependent upon the availability of
grant funding to support such specialized offerings.
Ten schools (16 percent) reported offering separate workshops,
seminars, or colloquiums concerned with library services to physically
handicapped patrons. Sixty schools (95 percent) indicated that they
would be willing to consider the sponsorship of future workshops,
seminars, or special programs. Fifty of these schools (79 percent) had
not previously undertaken coursework or programming in this area.
Three schools (5 percent) were not interested in conducting or spon-
soring workshops or seminars at any time.
351
That All May Read
Special curriculum techniques which library schools have incorpo-
rated within their training programs are: appropriate interdepartmental
opportunities for specialized coursework, independent study projects
(tutorials), and practicum and work-study experiences in hospitals,
libraries, and other related facilities.
Recommendations
Since 95 percent of the library schools participating in the 1978
survey reported that they would be willing to sponsor workshops on
library services to the handicapped, it would appear that the workshop
is a readily approved technique for educating students and practition-
ers alike in this field of library service. It is hoped that NLS regional
librarians for blind and physically handicapped people, with support
from state and local librarians, will encourage such program develop-
ment and will participate in special workshops and seminars at library
schools in their geographic areas. These professionals can share their
first-hand knowledge of and insights into existing services, program
planning and techniques, and facilities. Experienced librarians in this
field should readily accept opportunities to speak to library school
classes, to offer tours of their library facilities, and to participate in
other appropriate ways in library education programs. The use of
experienced regional librarians and other practitioners by library
schools will help to enhance their curriculum offerings in this area of
librarianship.
Opportunities to participate in specialized institutes are extremely
beneficial in helping school, college, and public librarians gain an
awareness of the various programs, services, and media which are
available to the handicapped patron. The instimte should also be used
to help experienced librarians keep up with technological develop-
ments in this field.
The concentrated program continues to be an excellent means of
educating the practitioner as well as the library school student. Such a
program should consist of a diversity of learning experiences, includ-
ing: basic information sources, films, demonstrations and hands-on
projects with media and equipment, practical work experience, field
trips for the on-site examination of facilities and services, and atten-
352
Training and Research
dance at professional meetings or conferences concerned with the
needs of the handicapped reader.
Specialized Library Education Offerings
The data gathered through the 1978 NLS survey to determine which
ALA-accredited library schools offered special courses, institutes, and
workshops to prepare librarians to serve handicapped persons indicate
an increase of specialized program activity in library school cur-
riculums since the undertaking of the 1976 survey. Among the ALA-
accredited programs which offered specialized opportunities for stu-
dents and practitioners interested in library services to handicapped
patrons, the following are particularly noteworthy. (The programs are
arranged alphabetically by parent institution.)
The University of Alabama, Graduate School of Library Service,
offered a two-week workshop for twenty-four community librarians
throughout Alabama. A large component of the workshop focused
upon library services to handicapped readers and library resources and
media for special individuals.
The State University of New York, Albany, School of Library and
Information Science, offered a week-long program to provide aca-
demic and public librarians who work with adults the opportunity to
develop appropriate attitudes toward handicapped people and to learn
effective means of serving them. The program was designed for per-
sons who were then or would be working with mentally or physically
handicapped people or who would be responsible for such programs
on the state, regional, or systems level. The objectives of the institute
were to establish awareness of needs and problems of handicapped
persons, to investigate methods of providing library and information
services to special groups, and to prepare participants to plan, imple-
ment, and evaluate programs for handicapped individuals. Curriculum
content in the institute included: historical background about library
services to handicapped persons; attitudes toward handicapped people;
psychology of disabled persons; users' expectations of library service;
library design; specialized resources, such as information systems,
clearinghouses, and data banks; legislation affecting libraries; special
aids and equipment; and funding sources.
353
That All May Read
The University of California, Berkeley, School of Library and In-
formation Studies, received three Title II-B (Higher Education Act)
fellowships for students in the master's degree program to specialize
in services to disadvantaged groups. The service area of study per-
mitted a student to specialize in library services to handicapped people
during the time period of the funding.
The Catholic University of America (Washington, D.C.), Depart-
ment of Library and Information Science, offers a post-master's cer-
tificate program for librarians who want to strengthen their manage-
ment skills, update their technical background, and interact with lead-
ers in the field of library services to handicapped readers. The
twenty-four-hour credit curriculum includes advanced management
and technology courses in the Department of Library and Information
Science and cooperating departments, subject seminars, practicums,
and tutorials.
The two subject seminars offered are: "User Groups: Issues and
Problems in the Handicapped Field" and "The Institution and the
Disadvantaged." "UserGroups" emphasizes the characteristics and
needs of the handicapped library user and is designed to increase the
manager's understanding of and skills in serving this special clientele.
Resource people lecture on library services to hearing impaired, blind
and partially sighted, aged, and physically handicapped populations.
"The Institution and the Disadvantaged" focuses upon the desociali-
zation of the individual by public and private institutions and covers
services for handicapped persons in hospitals, nursing homes, special
schools, and correction institutions. Rehabilitation techniques, in-
cluding bibliotherapy, are explored. Visits to libraries, agencies, and
information centers specializing in services to the handicapped are
conducted to give participants an opportunity to interact with leaders
in the field of services to handicapped readers. Laboratory sessions for
the teaching of American Sign Language are also incorporated into the
seminar.
A year-long internship in bibliotherapy is offered at St. Elizabeth's
Hospital in Washington, D.C. The student receives didactic and
experiential training in the uses of bibliotherapy under the supervision
of psychiatrists and bibliotherapists. Students also participate in a
program to do research in rehabilitation at the National Rehabilitation
354
Training and Research
Information Center located on the campus of Catholic University.
Participants have an opportunity to research rehabilitation literature
and to gain practical experience with rehabilitation databases.
The University of Denver, Graduate School of Librarianship, of-
fered intensive one-week courses entitled "Library Services for the
Handicapped" in December of 1977 and 1978 . The instructor for the
1977 class was Harris C. McClaskey , associate professor of librarian-
ship at the University of Minnesota Library School. The course was
designed for students and library practitioners interested in developing
information services for persons who are blind, deaf, or visually or
physically handicapped. Topics presented during the course included:
history of medicine and of library services to handicapped popula-
tions; an overview of the user as an individual with a disability; the
establishment, organization, and development of libraries for handi-
capped readers; staffing, collections, and services of such libraries;
grant applications; public relations; and communication with library
users. ^
The instructor of the 1978 course was Phyllis Dalton, former Cali-
fornia state librarian. Topics for discussion included: the psychologi-
cal and behaviorial manifestation of various disabilities; an overview
of current library services to handicapped persons; technologies which
assist disabled persons; and federal and state agencies which can assist
in the development of library service programs for handicapped indi-
viduals.
For several years the University of Denver has offered a week-long
workshop in bibliotherapy conducted by Arleen Hynes, C.P.T. , of St.
Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, D.C. Participants become ac-
quainted with the process of bibliotherapy and its many uses in public,
school, and institutional libraries.
The Florida State University, School of Library Science, offered
the five-day institute "Library Service to the Handicapped: Instruc-
tional Material for Inclusion in the Core Curriculum of Library
Schools" for faculty members of library schools. The objectives of
the institute were to acquaint participants with different aspects of
library service to handicapped persons; to discuss instructional mate-
rial developed especially for the institute on library service to handi-
capped persons; and to develop strategies for incorporating the in-
355
That All May Read
structional material into the core curriculum of library schools. Lec-
tures and films dealt with such topics as national library services and
networks; training and employing handicapped persons in libraries;
demonstrations of equipment for visually handicapped library users;
and the history and standards of library service to handicapped indi-
viduals.
Florida State also offers the course "Library Services to the Blind
and Physically Handicapped," in which various aspects of service are
covered. Lecnares are presented by social workers and other prac-
titioners with handicapped people and libraries and facilities for
handicapped individuals are visited. The course is taught by Gerald
Jahoda. Instructional materials concerned with library service to
handicapped readers recommended by the previously identified insti-
tute are used during the course.
In 1979, the School of Library Science began a master's-level pro-
gram which provides a specialization in library service to handicapped
persons. This program can be completed in one calendar year and
includes specialized coursework offered by the library school as well
as courses offered by other schools and departments within the uni-
versity. Students enrolled in the program are encouraged to intern in a
local library serving handicapped persons or to participate in similarly
oriented research projects.
The University of Hawaii, Graduate School of Library Studies,
offers a gerontology specialization for library school students. The
curriculum covers library services to aging persons and concentrates
heavily on the special needs of aged handicapped individuals.
Kent State University (Ohio), School of Library Science, offers the
specialized seminar "Library Materials and Services for Students with
Special Needs" for the purposes of exploring the implications of some
aspects of exceptionality; examining criteria for choice and sources of
library materials; and identifying, describing, and developing appro-
priate library media services. A special workshop on bibliotherapy
was conducted on campus by Rhea Rubin, former librarian of the
Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped at the Oregon State
Library .
Long Island University, Palmer Graduate Library School, offers the
course "Library Service for the Handicapped" taught by Ruth Velle-
356
Training and Research
man, library director at tlie Human Resources School. Designed to aid
librarians in serving the needs of handicapped patrons, it covers clini-
cal definitions of disabilities; psychology of disabled persons; litera-
ture of medical and vocational rehabilitation and special education;
rehabilitation counseling; architectural barriers; assistive devices; in-
formation networks; introduction to the needs of handicapped chil-
dren; and organization and administration of a rehabilitation library.
Field trips to special facilities are an integral part of the course.
The University of Maryland, College of Library and Information
Services, offered the half-day workshop "Toward Providing for Per-
sons with Handicaps: A Plan for Action." The workshop was cospon-
sored by the Disabled Student Services Department of the university.
Topics presented included: accessibility of buildings and facilities;
problems to anticipate in library services; reading aids and devices;
and bibliographic sources.
The University of Minnesota, Library School, offers courses and
workshops coordinated by Harris C. McClaskey. The course "Health
Science Libraries" covers the organization and administration of li-
braries devoted to serving the health services community; current
trends (including modem techniques of health sciences communica-
tion and the development of library systems); and an introduction to
the literature of medicine and related fields. "Library Services for the
Handicapped" is a course designed to enable students to learn how
library services for handicapped persons have developed and how they
are organized; how services change under social, economic, and tech-
nological developments within society and the health professions; how
interdisciplinary research and methodologies can be utilized in the
development of library services; and how research and analysis can be
joined to study selected problems.
The two-week workshop "Library Services for the Handicapped"
is offered each summer to establish an awareness of the field of library
services for handicapped people through the study of historical foun-
dations and environmental settings of library services designed for
specific users who are perceived as impaired or handicapped; objec-
tives, standards, and programs of libraries; organization and manage-
ment of library resources, facilities, and technology, and the charac-
teristics, development, and problems of cooperative systems.
357
That All May Read
St. John's University (Jamaica, New York), Division of Library
and Information Science, offers "Materials and Services to the Per-
ceptually Handicapped," designed for practitioners and library school
students. The course includes the following areas of sUidy: the psy-
chology of the exceptional reader; reading media and equipment; li-
brary techniques; organization and administration of rehabilitative li-
braries; and special library programs for the handicapped reader. The
course incorporates laboratory experiences providing hands-on proj-
ects with reading equipment and work with exceptional, physically
handicapped, and aged readers at Jamaica Hospital and other facilities
in the area.
The University of South Carolina, College of Librarianship, offers
"Library Services to InstiUitionalized and Physically Handicapped
Populations" to acquaint students with the problems and needs in-
volved in providing library services to persons in correctional, mental,
and health instiUitions and to persons unable to read conventional
printed materials because of a physical handicap.
The University of Washington, School of Librarianship , offers
"Hospital and Institutional Libraries," a course emphasizing general
orientation in the field of library services in health facilities. Topics of
study include the organization and techniques which apply to different
types of hospitals, institutions, and extension services divisions of
public libraries. Special emphasis is given to bibliotherapy and re-
habilitation. The course "Library Services for Special Populations"
attempts to acquaint students with the library and information needs of
aging, handicapped, and institutionalized populations; to investigate
what Hbraries are doing to meet these needs; and to explore the skills,
insights, and attitudes which are needed by librarians working with
these populations.
"New Ways of Thinking About Disabled People," a two-day
workshop, was designed for persons who interact with the service
providers to disabled persons in schools, libraries, health-care centers,
and recreational facilities. The objectives of the workshop were to
help participants acquire insights into the psychology of disabled
people; to learn how specialists in appropriate professions are assisting
358
Training and Research
disabled persons; and to become acquainted with the changing politi-
cal and legal status of the handicapped population. Workshop pres-
entations included topics such as federal and state legislation affecting
handicapped individuals; interdisciplinary professional cooperation;
and advocacy issues.
Wayne State University (Detroit, Michigan), Division of Library
Science, offers "Library Service to Special Groups," taught by
Genevieve Casey. The course is designed to acquaint students with the
library and information needs of handicapped individuals and groups;
what librarians can do to meet these needs; and what skills, insights,
and attitudes are needed by librarians working with these special
groups. The course focuses upon institutionalized groups, and field
trips to appropriate facilities are an integral part of the course. A
one-day workshop on bibliotherapy was conducted on the Wayne
State campus.
Western Michigan University, School of Librarianship, offers "Li-
brary Programming for the Handicapped Child," which utilizes realia
and special storytelling techniques as approaches to programming for
handicapped children from preschool to age fifteen.
The University of Wisconsin-Madison, Library School, offers a
twelve-month specialist program in gerontology under the direction of
Margaret E. Monroe. The objectives of the program are to develop
leadership personnel in library services to aging persons and to pre-
pare experienced public librarians to design, conduct, supervise, and
evaluate programs of service to aging persons. Interprofessional inter-
change is encouraged in the fields of nursing, occupational therapy,
and social work. This course of study emphasizes library service to
older people, information and research service to professional agency
staffs (such as social workers and recreation directors) and education
of the general public about aging and its problems. Emphasis is placed
upon programs of library service to the aging population, information
and referral services, agencies serving aging people, legislation, bib-
liotherapy, funding sources, and the design of in-service training in
library service to aging people. Other library school students may do
independent study in services to handicapped people.
359
That All May Read
Research Efforts in Library Education Settings
In November of 1978, a survey was made to determine the research
activities and projects on various aspects of library services to blind
and physically handicapped persons undertaken by library schools in
the United States and Canada. The survey instrument was mailed to
the 100 library schools listed in the 1978 directory of the Association
of American Library Schools. '** Of these schools, 63 (63 percent)
were ALA-accredited and 37 (37 percent) held associate institutional
membership in the association, that is, were nonaccredited schools.
Table 1 1-2 shows the responses from and the research efforts in the
TABLE 11-2
Responses from and Research Efforts in
1 GO AALS-mennber Library Schools
Number
of
Percent
Schools
1.
Number of AALS-member schools surveyed
a. Accredited
63
63
b. Nonaccredited
37
37
100
100
2
Responses to questionnaire
a. Accredited
50
62
b. Nonaccredited
31
38
81
100
3.
No response to questionnaire
a. Accredited
13
68
b. Nonaccredited
6
32
19
100
4.
Schools reporting research activities
a. Accredited
15
68
b. Nonaccredited
7
32
22
100
5^
Schools reporting no research activities'
a. Accredited
48
62
b. Nonaccredited
30
38
78
100
1 . Includes schools that did not respond.
360
Training and Research
100 AALS-member library schools. Returns were received from 8 1 of
the 100 schools included in the survey (8 1 percent). Fifty of the 63
ALA-accredited schools returned questionnaires (79 percent).
Thirty-one of the 37 nonaccredited schools returned questionnaires
(84 percent). Thus, of the eighty-one responses, fifty (62 percent)
were from ALA-accredited schools and thirty-one (38 percent) were
from nonaccredited schools. Of the 19 schools choosing not to re-
spond, 13 (68 percent) were ALA-accredited and 6 (32 percent) were
nonaccredited.
Tables 1 1-3 and 11-4 show the responses from and the research
efforts in the sixty-three ALA-accredited and the thirty-seven
nonaccredited library schools respectively. Twenty-two of the
eighty-one respondents (27 percent) reported research activities,
while fifty-nine reported no such activities (73 percent). Fifteen of
the fifty ALA-accredited schools returning questionnaires (30 per-
cent) reported research activities related to handicapped people,
while thirty-five schools (70 percent) reported no such activities.
Seven of the thirty-one nonaccredited schools returning question-
naires (23 percent) reported research activities, while twenty-four
(77 percent) reported no such activities.
TABLE 11-3
Responses from and Research Efforts in
63 ALA-Accredited Library Schools
1. Responses to questionnaire
2. No response to questionnaire
3. Schools reporting research activities
4. Schools reporting no research activities
Number
Percent
50
79
13
21
15
30
35
70
361
That All May Read
TABLE 11-4
Responses from and Research Efforts in
37 Nonaccredited Library Schools
1. Responses to questionnaire
2. No response to questionnaire
3. Schools reporting research activities
4. Schools reporting no research activities
Number
Percent
31
84
6
16
7
23
24
77
Research projects and activities have been undertaken, or are cur-
rently being undertaken, by both students and faculty in the reporting
schools. Table 1 1-5 shows the types of research activities reported by
twenty-two AALS-member library schools.
Research projects undertaken by students fall within three cate-
gories: 1) research undertaken to meet a course requirement, for
example, the preparation of a term paper; 2) research undertaken for
the preparation of a master's thesis; and 3) dissertation research at the
doctoral level. Thirteen of the twenty-two schools (59 percent) re-
porting research activities indicated that student research activities had
been done to meet course requirements. There may, in fact, be more
library schools where this is the case, but which did not identify such
activities. (The questionnaire did not specifically request the identifi-
cation of activities resulting in such papers.) Two schools (9 percent)
reported thesis research related to handicapped people and three
schools (14 percent) reported doctoral research in this area. Five
schools (23 percent) reported research activities undertaken by faculty
members. All of the reported research activities, with the exception of
three, were completed at the time of the survey.
362
Training and Research
TABLE 11-5
Types of Research Activities Reported by
22 AALS-member Library Schools
1 . Research for student coursework
2. Research for Master's thesis
3. Research for Ph.D. dissertation
4. Faculty research activities
Number
of
Perce
Schools
13
59
2
9
3
14
5
23
Student Research for Master's Program Classes
Thirty-seven titles of student papers were identified by respondents.
An examination of these titles revealed a wide diversity of subjects
related to handicapped people.
By far the most popular subject was an overview of the provision of
services to a particular group of handicapped persons. Specific publics
examined included ambulatory disabled, blind and visually impaired,
deaf, homebound elderly, and physically handicapped persons. It
would appear that in most instances these papers were based upon an
examination of the existent literature in the area of service. It should
be noted, however, that in several instances the paper combined find-
ings in the literature with research on the provision of services within a
stated locality.
Surveys of services available to handicapped persons in libraries
within a particular geographic area were also popular. Student papers
have investigated services provided by libraries in the Fox River Val-
ley of Wisconsin; by patient libraries in northern New Jersey; by
public libraries in Utah, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio; and by
university libraries in Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New
Mexico, Nevada, Montana, and Arizona. Surveys of services pro-
vided by libraries in specific university settings include the University
of Oklahoma, Brigham Young University, and the University of Al-
berta.
The handicapped child was a topic of considerable interest to library
school students. Topics explored included the mentally retarded child,
363
That All May Read
realia libraries for handicapped children, after-school programs for
learning-disabled children, and storytelling for blind children. Addi-
tional topics of student papers included the following:
the availability of specific library materials, particularly the provi-
sion of talking books and tapes;
historical studies, including a study of historical perspectives on
aging in America from 1790 to 1978 and histories of the Library
of Congress Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
(now NLS), and the Henry L. Wolfner Memorial Library for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped in St. Louis;
attitude studies on the employment of handicapped persons in li-
braries as well as on librarians' attitudes toward services and
materials for handicapped people;
accessibility of facilities;
standards of service for handicapped people;
legislation related to handicapped people; and
physically handicapped individuals as depicted in children's litera-
ture.
Research for Master's Theses
Two theses related to blind and physically handicapped people were
identified by respondents. "An Investigation of Large Print Publish-
ing in Relation to Library Services for the Handicapped' " was pre-
pared by Vivian B. Swingle in 1978 for the Master of Arts degree at
the University of Chicago. Swingle examined "the commerciallarge
print book industry that began around 1965 and the library response to
the new reading materials it produced." The study included library
programs involving large-print materials, "the national library net-
work that has evolved around the Library of Congress Division for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped," and an analysis of the kinds of
materials available in large print as included in two editions of Large
Type Books in Print. ^^
"The Frequency of Representation of Handicapped Characters in
Books Annotated in the 1976 Children's Catalog" was prepared by
Rhonda Jo Vinson in 1977 for the Master of Science in Education
degree at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale. The purpose of
364
Training and Research
Vinson's study was to "determine the representation of mentally and
physically handicapped major characters in books listed in the 1976
edition of the Children's Catalog.' ' Specifically, the researcher set
out to determine "whether 10 percent of the 5,415 books inChil-
dren's Catalog concerned a handicapped major character, whether 50
percent of the books found would be in the K-3 reading level and
whether 50 percent of the books found would be in the 4-6 reading
level." Vinson's data revealed that 40 of the 5,415 books (.75 per-
cent) concerned handicapped major characters and of these titles, 9
books (22 percent) had a kindergarten to third grade reading level, and
32 books (78 percent) had a fourth to sixth grade reading level. '^
Research for Doctoral Degrees
Four doctoral dissertations related to library services to blind and
physically handicapped persons were reported by respondents. "The
Career of the Handicapped Librarian: A Study into the Effects of
Physical and Psychological Barriers" was prepared by George Garry
Warren in 1978 for Florida State University. The purpose of Warren's
research was "to study the effects of physical and psychological bar-
riers upon the professional careers of selected physically handicapped
librarians as well as their appraisal of the current working conditions
and opportunities in librarianship. " Data were gathered from an
eleven-page questionnaire completed by forty-two handicapped libra-
rians. Among Warren's conclusions were the following:
The same number of handicapped librarians worked in technical
services as in public services, with almost one-third in supervi-
sory or administrative positions.
One out of every five handicapped librarians in the study reported
having been denied a position based solely on handicap. For the
hearing-impaired librarian, job discrimination was nearly twice
as great.
Discrimination existed to a lesser degree in library schools and in
continuing education.
Most handicapped librarians are satisfied with their jobs.
Considering all the variables, librarianship is a rewarding career for
handicapped persons.'^
365
That All May Read
Cozetta White Buckley's dissertation "Media Sei^ices for Excep-
tional Students: An Exploratory Study of the Practices and Perceptions
of Library Media Specialists in Selected Southern States" was pre-
pared in 1978 for the University of Michigan. The purpose of
Buckley's study was threefold: "(1) to investigate the status of library
media services for exceptional students enrolled in public schools of
selected southern states, (2) to ascertain the opinions of media
specialists on factors pertaining to the education of media profession-
als who work with exceptional students, and (3) to explore the re-
lationship between selected characteristics of media specialists and
schools and the variables adequacy of resources and frequency of
services provided exceptional students." Data were gathered from
responses to a questionnaire completed by 364 public school media
specialists in Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Ten-
nessee. Buckley's major findings as reported in an abstract furnished
by the researcher include the following:
Media specialists perceived the collections of resources to be
"moderately adequate. ' '
The overall frequency for media services provided was rated "oc-
casionally."
The organization of resources used by exceptional students fol-
lowed the general pattern of organization.
The adaptation of facilities and other accommodations surveyed
and required for the physically handicapped were generally
lacking.
The policies which govern use and access to the media center apply
to all students.
Media specialists perceived a need for training in special education.
The two preferred alternative avenues for training were continuing
education programs at the school/district level and the integration
of special education content into existing library science courses.
Buckley's primary recommendation was that further research was
needed through which models for media services could be developed
for exceptional students in a mainstreamed setting.'^
Research for another dissertation related to media services and re-
sources and the exceptional student was in progress at the time of the
survey (November 1978). Florida State University doctoral smdent
366
Training and Research
Judith F. Davie was undertaidng a survey of school library media
resources for exceptional students in Florida public schools. This de-
scriptive study will survey school library media resources for excep-
tional children concentrating on materials, equipment, facilities, and
personnel. The data gathered will provide the basis for a comparison
of the resources that are available with the resources that are needed to
serve exceptional students. Davie defined the exceptional student to
include those who are mentally retarded, speech impaired, deaf or
hard of hearing, blind or partially sighted, physically impaired, emo-
tionally handicapped, socially maladjusted, suffering from a specific
learning disability, and gifted.'*
The final dissertation reported was Kenneth Leon Ferstl's "Public
Librarians and Service to the Aging: A Suidy of Attitudes" prepared
in 1977 for Indiana University. The purpose of Ferstl's study was
threefold:
to ascertain the extent to which attitudes held by public librarians
were in accord with the principles stated in "The Library's Re-
sponsibihty to the Aging";
to ascertain the extent to which attitudes of public librarians were in
accord with the principles and standards pertinent to library ser-
vices to the aging as stated in Minimum Standards for Public
Library Systems, 1966; and
to determine the attitudes of public librarians toward commonly
accepted misconceptions and stereotypes held about the aged and
to what extent the attitudes held differ.
Data were gathered using a questionnaire completed by 229 public
service librarians in public libraries in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana,
and Michigan. Although this study did not focus directly upon handi-
capped people, responses to several statements of standards and prin-
ciples have pertinence for elderly handicapped individuals. Services
of potential importance to handicapped aging adults which were sup-
ported by the respondents were the provision of library services to
meet the needs of homebound aged people and the improvement of
library facilities to make the library an easier place for older people to
use. Areas of service which were not strongly supported by respon-
dents were programs on aging and its problems specifically for older
367
That All May Read
people, library services to meet the needs of institutionalized aged
individuals, and the provision of bookmobile service beyond the im-
mediate environment of the community library. Of the stereotypes and
misconceptions related to the physical characteristics of older adults,
the respondents tended to agree that older adults walk slowly and need
glasses to read. However, they strongly refuted the concepts that older
people have poor coordination, are hard of hearing, feel tired most of
the time, have to go to bed early, and are confined to bed a great deal
because of illness. All of the stereotypes related to the mental dete-
rioration of older people were rejected by the respondents.'*
Research by Library Science Educators
Five schools reported research activities by members of their facul-
ties. C. Edward Carroll has studied, on an ongoing basis, the prob-
lems which handicapped students have relative to access to the School
of Library and Information Science and the Library Science Library at
the University of Missouri-Columbia. Included in Carroll's continu-
ing investigation are the identification and costs of alternative ap-
proaches to overcoming physical barriers in facilities.
Genevieve M. Casey, Wayne State University, Division of Library
Science, undertook a study to determine the degree of user satisfaction
with books on cassette as opposed to books on disc or reel-to-reel tape
by patrons in the regional libraries for the blind and physically handi-
capped at the Cleveland Public Library and at the Cincinnati-
Hamilton County Public Library. From the data provided by 300 users
on the effectiveness and acceptability of cassette books, Casey con-
cluded that "the great majority of handicapped people of all ages,
physical handicap, educational level and living situation would prefer
books recorded on cassette because of their ease in use, compactness,
portability , and sound fidelity . ' ' The complete results of the study are
published in The Ohio Cassette Book Project: An Investigation of
User Satisfaction . ''
Eliza T. Dresang's 1978 paper "Library Education's Decision-
Making on Courses in Library Services to Special Publics" at the
Library School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison presented
case studies on decision making in initiating and sustaining courses
368
Training and Research
designed to prepare librarians to serve special users. Three decision-
making models were tested and each of the cases illustrates a different
model. Handicapped and elderly people were included by Dresang as
users with special needs. '^
M. Doreen E. Fraser of the School of Library Service at Dalhousie
University is the compiler of a "Roster of Observations About Pro-
grammes and Activities for Elders in Eight Western Europe and North
American Countries." Compiled at the request of members of "caring
professions," the document is a roster of effective and proven ideas
and programs observed during the author's travels in Britain, Norway,
Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, the United States,
and Canada.'® Fraser is also working on a directory of information
resources in geriatrics and international gerontology. Included in the
directory will be brief descriptions of useful organizations and the
identification of resource persons arranged under topics. Name and
geographic indexes will also be prepared.^"
Margaret E. Monroe of the Library School of the University of
Wisconsin-Madison is the author of The Use of Print and Other
Media in Nursing Homes of Wisconsin in 1975. Monroe's study "of
the physical, social and professional climate of Wisconsin nursing
homes for the use of print and other media' ' was coordinated with a
study of public library services to Wisconsin's older adults. Funding
was provided by a grant from the McBeath Foundation of Milwaukee,
with administrative support from the Faye McBeath Institute on Aging
and Adult Life at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Responses from 203 nursing home administrators, field visits, and
interviews provided the data. Among Monroe's findings were: (1)
most library resources are made available in nursing homes through
recreation staff ("librarian surrogates") and (2) fewer than 70 percent
of nursing home residents choose the radio or television programs they
experience, so that reading choices are among the few individualized
choices residents make. Since 1978 Monroe has studied the reading of
older men and women in the Milwaukee Federated Library System.
The purpose of this project is to test hypotheses about the reading of
older adults relative to the selection of fiction vs. nonfiction, "life
task" orientation of book use, and retirement as a factor affecting the
use of books. This study is also funded by the McBeath Foundation.^'
369
That All May Read
College and University Library Services for the Handicapped Stu-
dent in Texas by James L. Thomas of the School of Library and
Information Sciences, North Texas State University, Denton, is a
"directory listing services, equipment, and accessibility to academic
libraries" in Texas. Undertaken in 1978, the project was funded by
the College and University Libraries Division of the Texas Library
Association and by North Texas State University. Data gathered by
questionnaire were provided by 133 college and university library
directors in 107 separate institutions. Thomas's findings included the
following:
Libraries not having materials in braille or on tape for the blind and
not providing special reference service for blind individuals indi-
cated that they would secure the materials or make arrangements
for user needs if requested to do so.
Seventy-two percent of the libraries had some kind of special
equipment available for the handicapped student. Tape recorders
and electric typewriters were most frequently identified.
As for exterior accessibility, 85 percent of the buildings had at least
one entrance at ground level and 70 percent had a ramp to aid
wheelchair students in accessing the building.
As for interior provision, 49 percent had restrooms with side stalls
and grab bars, 23 percent had extended handrails on stairways,
and 23 percent and 3 1 percent had water fountains and tele-
phones, respectively, accessible to wheelchair users. ^^
Summary
Research activities in various aspects of library services to blind and
physically handicapped individuals do not appear to fit any particular
pattern. Students enrolled in courses in master's degree programs
which provide opportunities for research projects appear to explore a
diversity of topics. In many instances, it is only at this level in library
schools that research on services to blind and physically handicapped
readers takes place.
Research activities outside the framework of coursework taken for
the first professional degree are limited, to say the least, and seem to
follow no particular pattern. Responses to the survey did not evidence
370
Training and Research
an interest in any one particular segment of the handicapped popula-
tion, on the part of persons in educational settings clustered within a
particular geographic area, or on the part of faculty members as op-
posed to doctoral students or students enrolled in sixth-year degree
programs. To some degree, research is being undertaken by faculty
members or snjdents in schools with well-established educational pro-
grams in services to handicapped persons or in related areas, for
example, Wayne State University and the University of Wisconsin-
Madison, or in schools which are in the process of building such
programs, such as Florida State University and North Texas State
University. (It should be noted that exceptions might be made to this
statement, given the fact that all schools which were mailed question-
naires did not take part in the study.)
Conclusion
What of future research efforts in library services to blind and physi-
cally handicapped people?
In the past, an increase in the awareness by society as a whole to the
problems of a particular segment of the population, the legislation
drafted related to that subpopulation, and attempts made to raise the
attitudinal level of the population have preceded an increase in educa-
tional and research activities in library services to that particular sub-
population. Within recent years, this has been true of library services
to elderly people.
As legislation related to handicapped individuals begins to take hold
and as handicapped persons become more visible and grow in political
clout, making greater demands for services in general, and in particu-
lar for services to meet their informational, educational, and recre-
ational needs, which must include library services, educational and
research activities in library education settings will grow accordingly.
This, however, is not going to happen unless library educators, stu-
dents, and practitioners agree that libraries have a role to play in
contributing to the community's positive attitude toward handicapped
individuals. It is on this level that progress must first be won and
without such progress, education programs and research activities
within library education settings are not likely to be substantial nor are
371
That All May Read
they likely to make sustained contributions towards assuring the exis-
tence of quality library services for blind and physically handicapped
readers.
NOTES
1 . Articles concerning the library's role in mainstreaming handicapped students
may be found in Exceptional Children, Journal of Learning Disabilities, Journal of
School Psychology, Journal of Special Education, and in American Libraries, Li-
brary Journal, Library Trends, School Library Journal, and Wilson Library Bulle-
tin.
2. Readings on employment mainstreaming and its consequences may be found in
Journal of Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Literature, and Rehabilitation World.
3. Joseph A. Califano, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare news
release, 28 April 1977, p. 5.
4. Harris C. McClaskey, Introduction, Institution Libraries, Library Trends
26:301-305 (Winter 1978).
5. Eleanor Frances Brown, Library Service to the Disadvantaged (Metuchen,
N. J.: Scarecrow Press, 1971), p. 137.
6. Genevieve M. Casey, "Library Service to the Handicapped and Insti-
tutionalized," Library Trends 20:364 (October 1971).
7. Merrillyn C. Gibson, "Preparing Librarians to Serve Handicapped Individu-
als," Journal of Education for Librarianship 18: 121-130 (Fall 1977).
8 . Directory of the Association of American Library Schools: 1978 (State College,
Pa.: The Association of American Library Schools, 1978).
9. Janet Silver, ' 'Back to Academia: A Course on Library Service to the Handi-
capped," Dikta 2:176-177 (Winter 1977/78).
10. Directory of the Association of American Library Schools: 1978.
1 1 . Vivian B . Swingle, "An Investigation of Large Print Publishing in Relation to
Library Services for the Handicapped" (MA. thesis. University of Chicago, 1978).
12. Rhonda Jo Vinson. "The Frequency of Representation of Handicapped
Characters in Books Annotated in the 1976 Children's Catalog" (M.S. in Education
thesis. Southern Illinois University, 1977).
13. George Garry Warren, "The Career of the Handicapped Librarian: A Study
into the Effects of Physical and Psychological Barriers" (Ph.D. diss. , Florida State
University, 1978).
14. Cozetta White Buckley, "Media Services for Exceptional Students: An Ex-
ploratory Study of the Practices and Perceptions of Library Media Specialists in
Selected Southern States" (Ph.D. diss.. University of Michigan, 1978).
15. Judith F. Davie, "A Survey of School Library Media Resources for Excep-
tional Students in Florida Public Schools" [(Ph.D. diss., Florida State University,
1979)— Ed.].
372
Training and Research
16. Kenneth L. Ferstl, "Public Librarians and Service to the Aging: A Study of
Attitudes" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1977).
17. Genevieve M. Casey, The Ohio Cassette Book Project; An Investigation of
User Satisfaction (Columbus: State Library of Ohio, 1973).
18. [Published in abbreviated form as "An Application of Decision Making
Theory to Curriculum Change in Library Education," Journal of Education for
Librarianship 20:184-197 (Winter 1980)— ED. ]
19. M. DoreenE. Eraser, "Roster of Observations about Programmes and Ac-
tivities for Elders in Eight Western Europe and North American Countries" (Research
completed at the School of Library Service. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova
Scotia, and publication in progress, 1981).
20. M. Doreen E. Eraser to Kenneth L. Eerstl, December 1 1 , 1978.
2 1 . Margaret E. Monroe, The Use of Print and Other Media in Nursing Homes of
Wisconsin in 1 975 (and A Related Surrey ofPubUc Library Service to Older Adults)
(Madison, Wis.: Library School and Faye McBeath Institute on Aging and Adult Life,
University of Wisconsin, 1977).
22. James L. Thomas, College and University Library Ser\>icesfor the Handi-
capped Student in Texas (Denton, Tex.: North Texas State University, 1978).
Appendix A
1978 Questionnaire on Library Science Courses, Institutes, and
Workshops in Service to the Handicapped
used by Merrillyn C. Gibson
Do you currently offer courses specifically concerned with library
services to the handicapped? Yes No
If Yes, please list course titles and ENCLOSE A DESCRIPTION OF
CURRICULA
If you do not offer such a course, do you plan to do so in the future?
Yes No
Do you offer any general courses, such as Public Library Management
or Services to the Disadvantaged, which cover services to handi-
capped groups as part of the course curricula? Yes No
373
That All May Read
Have you recently (within the past year) conducted institutes, work-
shops, or seminars on library services to the handicapped?
Yes No
If Yes, please give description of program curricula for institute or
workshop OR enclose a brochure.
Are you willing to conduct or sponsor institutes, workshops, or semi-
nars about library services to the handicapped? Yes No
Name Phone:
School
Address.
Please return this questionnaire as soon as possible to: Merrillyn
Gibson, Reference Section, National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped, Library of Congress, 1291 Taylor St. NW,
Washington, DC 20542.
Appendix B
November 1978 Questionnaire on Research Activities on Various
Aspects of Library Services to Handicapped People
used by Kenneth L. Ferstl
Current research studies in library services to the blind and physically
handicapped:
Duplicate this form as necessary.
Name of investigator(s):
Title of study/project:
Beginning and projected ending dates of the study/project:
Funding source and level of funding (if readily available):
Brief description of the study/project. (An abstract may be attached to
this questionnaire in lieu of statement describing the study/project.)
374
Training and Research
Retrospective research studies in library services to the blind and
physically handicapped:
Duplicate this form as necessary.
Name of investigator(s):
Title of study/project:
Date of the study/project:
Funding source and level of funding (if readily available):
Brief description of the smdy/project. (An abstract may be attached to
this questionnaire in lieu of a statement describing the study/project.)
( ) NO RESEARCH is currently being undertaken or has been un-
dertaken by the faculty or student body of our library school .
Name of School:
Location of School: .
Appendix C
Library Schools Responding to the 1978 Survey of Research Ac-
tivities on Various Aspects of Library Services to Handicapped
People
ALA-Accredited Schools
University of Alabama, Graduate School of Library Service
Brigham Young University, School of Library and Information Sci-
ences
University of British Columbia, School of Librarianship
University of California at Berkeley, School of Library and Informa-
tion Studies
University of California at Los Angeles, Graduate School of Library
and Information Science
Case Western Reserve University, School of Library Science
University of Chicago, Graduate Library School
Clarion State College, School of Library Media and Information Sci-
ence
Columbia University, School of Library Service
Dalhousie University, School of Library Service
375
That All May Read
Drexel University, Graduate School of Library Science
Emory University, Division of Librarianship
Emporia Kansas State University, Graduate Program in Librarianship
Florida State University, School of Library Science
George Peabody College for Teachers, School of Library Science
University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library Science
Indiana University, Graduate Library School
University of Iowa, School of Library Science
Kent State University, School of Library Science
University of Kentucky, College of Library Science
Long Island University, Palmer Graduate Library School
Louisiana State University, Graduate School of Library Science
University of Maryland, College of Library and Information Services
McGill University, Graduate School of Library Science
University of Michigan, School of Library Science
University of Missouri-Columbia, School of Library and Information
Science
Universite de Montreal, Ecole de Bibliotheconomie
State University of New York at Albany, School of Library and In-
formation Science
State University of New York at Buffalo, School of Information and
Library Studies
State University of New York at Geneseo, School of Library and
Information Science
University of North Carolina, School of Library Science
North Carolina Central University, School of Library Science
North Texas State University, School of Library and Information Sci-
ences
University of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Library and Information
Sciences
Pratt Institute, Graduate School of Library and Information Science
Queens College of City University of New York, Department of Li-
brary Science
Rosary College, Graduate School of Library Science
St. John's University, Division of Library and Information Science
Simmons College, School of Library Science
University of South Carolina, College of Librarianship
376
Training and Research
Southern Connecticut State College, Division of Library Science and
Instructional Technology
Syracuse University, School of Information Studies
University of Texas, Graduate School of Library Science
Texas Woman's University, School of Library Science
University of Toronto, Faculty of Library Science
University of Washington, School of Librarianship
Wayne State University, Division of Library Science
Western Michigan University, School of Librarianship
University of Western Ontario, School of Library and Information
Science
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Library School
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, School of Library Science
Non-ALA-accredited Schools
University of Alberta, Faculty of Library Science
Auburn University, Department of Educational Media
Bowling Green State University, Department of Library and Educa-
tional Media
Bridgewater State College, Library Science Department
Central Michigan University, Department of Library Science
Central Missouri State University, Department of Library Science and
Instructional Technology
East Carolina University, Department of Library Science
East Tennessee State University, Library Service Department
Indiana State University, Division of Library Science
Kutztown State College, Department of Library Science
James Madison University, Department of Library Science and Edu-
cational Media
Memphis State University, Department of Library Service
University of Mississippi, Graduate School of Library and Informa-
tion Science
Murray State University, Department of Library Science
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Library Science/
Educational Technology Division
University of Oklahoma, School of Library Science
University of Puerto Rico, Graduate School of Librarianship
377
That All May Read
Purdue University, Media Sciences Section, Department of Education
University of Rhode Island, Graduate Library School
St. Cloud State College, Department of Library and Audio- Visual
Education
Sam Houston State University, Library Science Department
San Jose State University, Division of Librarianship
Shippensburg State College, Library Science Department
Southern Illinois University, Department of Curriculum, Instruction,
and Media
University of Southern Mississippi, School of Library Service
Spalding College, Department of Library Science
University of Utah, Department of Educational Systems and Learning
Resources
Western Kentucky University, Department of Library Science
West Virginia University, Department of Library Science
University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, Department of Library Science
Appendix D
1980 Survey of Special Programs to Prepare Librarians to Serve
Handicapped Students
Merrillyn C. Gibson
The National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped (NLS), Library of Congress, conducted a survey in October
1980 to determine which library schools in the United States that were
accredited by the American Library Association (ALA) offered spe-
cial courses, seminars, workshops, and institutes to prepare librarians
to serve a handicapped clientele.
Each of the sixty-one ALA-accredited library programs in the
United States as listed by ALA in March 1980 was surveyed.
Twenty-six of the schools (43 percent) responded to the request for
data. The results of those returns are summarized in Table 1 1 -D I .
Seven out of the twenty-six responding schools (27 percent) offer
formal and specialized courses of instruction to prepare librarians for
378
Training and Research
TABLE 11 -D1
Survey of Special Programs to Prepare Librarians
to Serve Handicapped Individuals
Total number of schools surveyed
Response to questionnaire
No response to questionnaire
Formal Courses
a. Presently off ered
b. Planned in future
c. Not planned
Special Institutes
Worksfiops and/or Seminars
a. Presently or recently conducted
b. None conducted but willing to sponsor
c. Not interested in sponsoring
Specialized Independent Study
Number
Percent
Percent
of
of
of
Schools
Total
Responding
Schools
Schools
61
100
26
43
100
35
57
7
27
2
8
17
65
1
4
4
15
21
81
1
4
2
8
serving physically handicapped readers. Such coursework includes the
study of issues, library programs and services, types of media, and the
special needs of serving physically handicapped readers. Schools re-
porting such programs are the University of Minnesota, Wayne State
University, Florida State University, Southern Connecticut State
College, the University of South Carolina, the University of Wash-
ington, and Kent State University. Two schools, Florida State Uni-
versity and the University of South Carolina, offer individualized
planning of student programs to permit specialization in library ser-
vices to handicapped clientele. These programs are made up of a
series of courses, tutorials, research projects, colloquiums, prac-
ticums, and internships.
Fourteen of the responding schools (54 percent) reported that al-
though they offered no separate courses in this area, the discussion of
services to disabled library users was a part of other course offerings,
such as courses on library services to adults, services to the disadvan-
taged, and public library management. Five schools indicated neither
special courses nor discussion in general courses was offered. Two of
379
That All May Read
these schools reported that although no special courses were offered
and there was no discussion of library services to handicapped indi-
viduals in general courses, independent research projects were avail-
able for interested students.
Nineteen of the responding schools (73 percent) reported that
specialized courses were not being offered. Of these schools, two
(8 percent) indicated that plans were under way to offer specialized
coursework in the future.
Seventeen of the responding schools (65 percent) which were not
offering coursework at the time of the survey indicated that they had
no plans to incorporate courses relating to library services to physi-
cally handicapped persons in their cuiriculum in the future.
One responding school (4 percent) reported offering a week-long
specialized institute to prepare librarians to serve handicapped library
users effectively. Instruction in this program consisted of lectures by
appropriate guest speakers, films, demonstrations of equipment and
aids, discussions of issues and problems, and an examination of
existing facilities and services.
Four responding schools (15 percent) reported offering recent
workshops, seminars, or colloquiums concerned with library services
to physically handicapped readers. Twenty-five schools (96 percent)
indicated that they would be willing to consider sponsorship of future
workshops, seminars, or special programs. One school was not in-
terested in conducting or sponsoring a workshop or seminar at any
time. Twenty-two of these schools (8 1 percent) had not recently un-
dertaken programming in this area. Six responding schools offer
separate specialized courses but have not offered recent workshops,
seminars, or special programs.
Since 96 percent of the library schools participating in the 1980
survey reported that they would be willing to sponsor workshops on
library services to handicapped individuals, the workshop appears to
be a readily approved technique for educating students and practition-
ers alike in this field of library science.
380
Part Four
In Other Countries
M. Joy Lewis
In recent years developments in the area of library services and related
provision for blind and physically handicapped individuals have, in-
creasingly, been a feature of library services to the public in the major
industrialized countries. Levels of service vary considerably and are
naturally linked to and dependent upon the standard of other types of
provision for the general public, to institutions of higher and further
education, and so on, in each country.
Frank Gardner observed in 1964 that library provision to hospital
patients tended to exist in countries where there was either a devel-
oped public library service or a developed hospital service;' this trend
has continued with the extension of the traditional service for patients
in hospital to those groups in the community who are handicapped or
disabled. Library services aimed specifically at physically handi-
capped individuals in the community are largely a product of the past
twenty years. They were originally an outgrowth of service to patients
in hospital and to housebound readers. In many countries, they are
still inextricably linked organizationally with such services and rarely
the subject of separate consideration.
In contrast, organized provision of library services for blind readers
in many developed countries predated library services for hospital
patients; in other parts of the world they developed together. The
provision of reading material for blind persons, initially a nineteenth-
century phenomenon, has accelerated in the twentieth century, so that
most countries are now aware of the special reading needs of blind
persons and make some provision. The last ten years have seen ad-
vances everywhere due to technological developments. Recognition
of the difficulties faced by people with visual impairment other than
blindness has, however, emerged only comparatively recently. In the
past fifteen or so years, provision for categories such as the partially
M. Joy Lewis, MBE, FLA, is senior lecturer i/c courses in hospital and medical librarianship. School of
Librarianship. thePolytechnicof North London, England.
381
That All May Read
sighted has, in various countries, begun to be associated in some
measure with library provision for blind readers.
A comprehensive review of library services to blind and physically
handicapped people in all countries in the world outside the United
States is clearly impossible within the confines of a single chapter.
Nor does this writer, although having travelled extensively to other
countries to see provision over the years, have a detailed or personal
knowledge of all such services in every country, nor the linguistic
ability to read accounts in the literature in languages other than Eng-
lish. Furthermore, a major piece of research into library provision for
blind readers internationally was undertaken by D. E. Schauder and
M. D. Cram, and published in 1977 as Libraries for the Blind: An
International Study r All those concerned with services to the visually
handicapped are strongly advised to examine this study, since it deals
with many aspects of organization and provision and is the most
comprehensive account of the subject which yet exists.
The approach adopted here is one of compromise, whereby exam-
ples of services which are interesting or unusual, either in themselves
or in the context of library provision in a particular country, are
identified, although the description of a service in one country does
not necessarily indicate the lack of similar provision in another. In-
evitably it has been necessary to rely heavily on published descriptions
of services, existing bibliographies and abstracts, particularly L/ferary
and Information Science Abstracts. One difficulty is that an account
of provision may appear in the literature but subsequent alterations to
that provision — its cessation or extension, for example — are often not
recorded, or only briefly, in printed sources. For these reasons
searching has been confined mainly to the literature of the past six
years in an attempt to ensure reliability, but space has dictated a high
degree of selectivity in describing services and therefore no claim at
comprehensive coverage is made. The majority of descriptions are
found in English language sources, although Scandinavian sources run
a close second, and to some extent this reflects the emphasis interna-
tionally and the importance attached to such provision in different
countries. Thus there is here a similar emphasis on developments in
English-speaking countries and particularly on the British experience.
382
In Other Countries
which the author is familiar with and able to write of with some
confidence.
National Surveys
Examination of existing provision — or its absence — has prompted
major national surveys and reports where services to blind and physi-
cally handicapped readers are discussed, usually within the public
library context, along with services to other categories of readers,
such as hospital patients and prisoners.
In 1973, for example, a report sponsored by the Australian Library
Promotion Council, Library Services to the Disadvantaged: A Report
to the Nation, appeared. Its investigations revealed that 79 percent of
new invalid pensioners (receiving benefits for the first time between
1969 and 1970) were under sixty years of age and suggested that a
significant proportion of the population was disabled to such a degree
that it was unable to make use of traditional library services. Services
to blind individuals, it was suggested, urgently needed assistance or
remodeling, and a recommendation was made that the state library
should shoulder the burden borne for so long by the societies for the
blind. (In support of this recommendation, reference is made in the
report to the organizational pattern of the Library of Congress's Na-
tional Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped under
its former name: Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped.)
Other recommendations relate to access to libraries and availability of
special equipment for physically handicapped readers, and the re-
searchers clearly felt that the need for action in the improvement of
existing provision and implementation of new services was urgent on
all fronts.^ Subsequently, the 1975 report of the Australian Library
Association to the Committee of Inquiry into Public Libraries, It's All
a Matter of What You Know, included recommendations about ser-
vices to the disadvantaged and had a reference to the report of 1973.*
In 1977, the National Library set up a working party on library ser-
vices for handicapped readers. During 1978 there was considerable
activity, with first a national survey into library services for visually
and physically handicapped persons being undertaken by the National
Library on behalf of the working party, and secondly a seminar held in
383
That All May Read
August in Canberra, which was organized by the National Library of
Australia in conjunction with the National Advisory Council for the
Handicapped and gave opportunity for 101 people — librarians, repre-
sentatives from government and voluntary organizations, and handi-
capped persons — to meet, listen, and discuss.^
In April 1979 the Report of the Working Party on Library Services
for the Handicapped was published, including as an appendix the
report on the national survey of March 1978. The report of 1979
makes several important recommendations regarding delivery of ser-
vice, on a state basis; the role of the National Library with regard to
such matters as the establishment of a union catalog of special mate-
rials for the handicapped; international interlibrary loans; copyright
clearance; and the development of standards by the Library Associa-
tion of Australia for library services to handicapped individuals.®
In England, the Department of Education and Science (DES)
funded research into public library staffing, which was carried out by
the Local Authorities Management Services and Computer Committee
(LAMSAC) for the DES between 1972 and 1974. The final report, in
three volumes, was published in 1976 and included a special report on
the staffing of services to people who were hospital patients, house-
bound, or institutionalized.'' This research was significant for its ap-
proach to library services in that all activities were identified and
allocated a measurement of time, in decimal hours per week, arrived
at from inquiry, observation, and experience, which enabled staffing
needs to be calculated on a modular basis according to the activities
undertaken. It was possible then to draw attention to the different
aspects of provision and indicate the priorities which might be given,
for example, in services for housebound and physically handicapped
people. Unfortunately, financial restrictions which prevailed at the
time of publication of the report, and an accompanying ministerial
statement to the effect that the report's findings could not be used to
enhance existing staffing levels, served to lessen the impact of the
research, although some authorities have made use of the report to
analyse their staffing situation.^
The Australian report of 1973 had a direct influence in Britain,
where the DES's Library Advisory Council for England set up a
Working Party on Library Services for the Disadvantaged in 1975.
384
In Other Countries
The ensuing report, The Libraries' Choice, published in 1978, high-
lighted the deficiencies in services to hospital patients, handicapped
and housebound individuals, prisoners, ethnic minorities, illiterate
adults, and those in deprived areas, and recommendations were made
for the enhancement of existing provision. Research into the attitudes
and preferences of users of services to housebound and handicapped
people; meetings between library authorities and other interested local
authority departments and relevant bodies, such as those concerned
with the blind; publicity outside the library of information regarding
large-print books and aids, such as page-turners; and the importance
of access for physically handicapped persons to and within library
buildings — all are the subject of recommendations.''
A working party, similar to those in Australia and England, was set
up in Norway in 1973 to sUidy the supply of literature and public
library provision for handicapped people. Its work was completed in
1976 and the findings, which have far-reaching implications insofar as
library services for blind and physically handicapped individuals are
concerned, have been described by Bjorg Heie, first secretary of the
State Library Directorate. The report's proposals include a scheme to
produce — with state support — 30 large-print titles, 70 braille titles for
sale and 200 for loan, 500 talking-book titles, and 35 color video
programs (for the deaf) on an annual basis. Talking newspapers, as in
Sweden, were felt to be the responsibility of the county library, with a
target total of 30 talking newspapers to serve about 15,000 persons
envisaged. A further recommendation was made that the four existing
separate libraries for blind people and provision of talking books,
video for the deaf, and other programs should be combined into one
special library based in Oslo to serve the whole country, but it was
also suggested that the county libraries should build up special collec-
tions of material for handicapped people. An interesting feature of this
report is the financial costing of realizing its recommendations and
objectives over a five- or alternative ten-year period.'"
A National Library Task Group on Library Service to the Handi-
capped, organized in Canada in 1974, reported in 1976. The need for
a national survey of library services, changes in copyright law, a
union catalog of nonprint and special-print media, and development of
a coordinated program of library service to blind and physically
385
That All May Read
handicapped individuals was stressed. Already the National Library
has followed the example of the United States by creating a Division
for the Visually and Physically Handicapped. ''
In Finland in May 1977, in a report to the minister of education, the
Committee on Library Services to the Visually Handicapped made a
number of recommendations, principally, that the state should take
over financial responsibility for the Library for the Blind. The state
grant was reported as 95 percent, with local authorities, through vol-
untary contributions, making up 5 percent. It was also recommended
that the Library for the Blind should take over the preparation of tapes
and braille from the Central Organization of the Blind and the Book
and Tape for the Blind organization. Changes in the copyright law
were needed so that all handicapped persons could make use of the
facilities.'^
These national surveys of services provide a context for the fol-
lowing specific examples of provision for visually and physically
handicapped persons and also indicate the state of progress in five
fairly representative developed countries and the level of official
interest within them.
National Libraries
The need of blind persons to have access to a large stock and range of
titles in a particular format, originally embossed literature (predom-
inantly in braille but, also, in some countries, in Moon) was the
mainspring for the establishment of national libraries for blind readers
in a number of countries, for example, in Britain, France, Germany,
Sweden, and the United States, in the late nineteenth century.
Countries such as Japan and the USSR use a national library with
regional branches (sixty-five in the case of Japan and sixty-nine in the
USSR), whereas in countries such as Britain, East Germany, Israel,
Italy, and New Zealand distribution is from a national center.
Schauder and Cram have described, in greater detail and analysis than
is possible here, the existing system — centralized or decentralized — in
a number of countries, but the method of organization appears to be
dependent largely upon the size of the country, the proportion of blind
persons, and local and culUiral variations within the population.'^
386
In Other Countries
Over the past decade, many national libraries have extended their
service so that, although embossed books are still important and may
be the major element in any stock, large-print books, talking books,
and tactile materials may variously be made available to readers.
Also, many countries include the partially sighted in provision made
by national libraries. The United States pattern of combining library
services to the blind and physically handicapped under one national
umbrella organization (whilst generally admired and envied) is not
always possible because the nature of funding of services, which in
some countries has a charitable or voluntary foundation, or — as has
been noted — copyright restrictions preclude it.
Denmark's State Library for the Blind incorporates the Printing
House for the Blind. In an interview with the director in 1977 it was
reported that the number of titles available was inadequate for the
6,500 borrowers but that financial limitations prevented expansion. A
staff of three librarians performed book selection, assisted by twenty
support staff. Stock consisted of a braille collection and 3,000 taped
books (transfer to cassettes was in progress), and seven braille and
thirteen tape magazines were produced, as well as talking newspapers
and braille music scores.''*
In 1979, Chief Librarian John Larsen addressed the (then) Libraries
for the Blind Working Group of the International Federation of Li-
brary Associations (IFLA) on library services for blind and physically
handicapped people in Denmark. He described the changes that had
recently taken place, for example, the conversion since the beginning
of 1979 to compact cassettes, which already amounted to 600 titles, in
from four to forty copies, supplementing the former open-reel pro-
gram, which had reached 3,700 titles at the time of the changeover.
The use and supply of talking books for blind patients, in hospital
libraries — a feature dating from the early 1960s — and for housebound
readers would probably increase in the age of compact cassettes.
Larsen looked forward optimistically to changes in library legislation
which were expected to reinforce the obligations of public libraries
toward blind and other handicapped persons.
Provisions for blind readers in the Netherlands, where it is esti-
mated there are 20,000 visually handicapped persons, are based on
four libraries (founded between 1884 and 1919), each of which pro-
387
That All May Read
duces and distributes braille materials, books and periodicals on tape
and cassette (including technical journals), children's literature, and
even pornography, if requested. Five other organizations have various
roles in producing audiomaterial, talking periodicals, braille material,
and study literature. The total stock of the nine in 1977 consisted of
45,564 braille titles, 33,978 talking-book titles, 34 periodicals in
braille, and 107 talking periodicals. It has been estimated that braille
materials were lent to 3,000 readers and recorded materials to 9,000
readers in 1976. Materials are available for loan to other than blind
readers. Extension is to all whose ability to read is limited: visually
and physically handicapped individuals, elderly people, and hospital
patients. A union catalog of all braille and talking-book materials in
the Netherlands is maintained at the Library for the Blind of the
Amsterdam Public Library.
An interesting feature of the Dutch service is the Coordinating
Center Foundation (Study Literature for the Blind Service), which was
established in 1965. It has a coordinating role with other organizations
and has as its aims the selection, production, cataloging, and distribu-
tion through existing libraries of study literature (other than music,
which is supplied from another source) in suitable format for visually
and otherwise handicapped individuals. "Book meetings" are held
regularly with the other concerned library organizations to ensure
adequate assignment of titles, and their production, for study pur-
poses. In 1976 a total of 1,145 items — books, stencils, and photo-
copies, including correspondence courses for 80 students — were pro-
duced for some 420 persons. The range of subjects covered is wide,
and students are urged to learn braille and not to rely entirely on taped
material, which is not appropriate, for example, for the study of dead
languages such as medieval Dutch or Old English. Difficulties also
arise in the use of some foreign-language braille material from coun-
tries where a contracted braille is used, which necessitates a full
transcription being made for the Dutch smdent. The Coordinating
Center is subsidized by a 70 percent government grant, with the other
30 percent contributed by participants. Changes were expected in the
Netherlands; the government intends to bring all the activities of the
Libraries for the Blind, including the Coordinating Center's service,
within one foundation.'^
388
In Other Countries
In the summer of 1980 the Netherlands Library for the Blind moved
into new, spacious quarters. The brochure announcing this move gives
information on the range of services available and states that the total
number of items (books, volumes, and cassettes) annually lent had
exceeded 3 million.
The 150,000 registered blind individuals in the United Kingdom are
served by two organizations with responsibilities for library services
to the blind population: the National Library for the Blind (NLB),
established in 1882 as a charitable venture, and the Royal National
Institute for the Blind (RNIB), established in 1868. "*
The NLB formerly had a London headquarters and a Northern
Branch, which served the five northern counties of England. Since it
provides, primarily, a postal service, a London location was not seen
as essential, and so in 1978 the NLB vacated its two separate premises
and moved to Bredbury, near Stockport in Cheshire, where all its
activities are now concentrated under one roof. The NLB has an
extensive collection (350,000 volumes) in braille and a small selection
of titles in Moon; it has about 6,000 members. Whilst the NLB itself
produces most braille titles used in its service, it also purchases items
in braille and in Moon from the RNIB, and in braille from the Scottish
Braille Press. The services of the NLB are free to registered blind
people, and, since 1965, as in all countries, items for blind individuals
have traveled free through the post office mails (although the NLB had
since 1958 in fact not charged its United Kingdom readers for post-
age).
In 1 966 the NLB launched a new service consisting of a small
collection of large-print books for the partially sighted reader — the
Austin Books — produced xerographically in cooperation with Uni-
versity Microfilms. The collection consists of small editions of titles,
primarily classics, unlikely to be in sufficient demand to be commer-
cially viable in large print; it is intended as a complementary service to
other large-print series, such as Ulverscroft. Austin Books can be
borrowed from the NLB through public libraries."'
The RNIB, the other major national organization for blind persons
in the United Kingdom, has many important activities in the fields of
blind education and blind welfare, but it also has a significant role as a
producer and publisher of books and magazines in braille (the only
389
That All May Read
other braille publisher in Britain is the Scottish Braille Press) and in
Moon, which it also supplies to libraries for blind readers abroad, in
Canada and South Africa, for example. One of the most valued of the
RNIB's periodical publications is its braille version of the Radio
Times, a national weekly publication detailing all BBC television and
radio programs, which is free to registered blind individuals. The
RNIB also maintains a tape library for students, with over 4,600 titles
available, and a students' braille library of about 52,000 volumes. The
Vernon Committee Report, The Education of the Visually Handi-
capped, says that the RNIB is contributing 100 to 150 titles, in mul-
tiple copies, each year, in addition to the 1 ,000 or more titles which
are being added to the Students' Braille Library. Comparison with the
30,000 new editions and titles of printed books published in Britain
each year'^ clearly illustrates a problem that is experienced
everywhere: the impossibility of providing reading material for visu-
ally handicapped people on an equivalent basis with the normally
sighted. With St. Dunstan's, the RNIB administers a talking service,
which will be described later with other similar services.
Some countries came late to providing a national library service for
the blind. For example, Poland's Central Library for the Blind started
in 1952. Growth is reported to have been slow with, in 1967, about
23,000 books, including large print. '^
In India, the Delhi Public Library established a braille department
in March 1963 — the first Indian public library to do so. The collection
in 1974 consisted of 5,000 braille volumes in Hindi and English,
together with the basis of a talking-book collection with 5,000 long-
playing records and audio equipment.^"
Reference has already been made to the large number of regional
libraries in Russia and Japan. A 1974 Japanese account is critical
when it states that 17,822 blind individuals in Osaka's Prefecture have
only seven libraries with services for them. The same writer suggests
that blind readers should not come under the Welfare Ministry but
should be the responsibility of the Social Education Department of the
Ministry of Education. Blind individuals are 7-8 percent of Japan's
total population, and visual handicaps are increasing in incidence. Of
those who might use it, only one-fifth can read braille. The writer
390
In Other Countries
stressed that more public libraries should supply services such as
reading-aloud provision, translators, braille signs, and magnifiers.^*
Provision in the USSR is extensive, with sixty-nine regional li-
braries distributing a service to the blind through branch libraries,
bookmobiles, postal delivery, and domiciliary services. The Republi-
can Central Library for the Blind has inaugurated research into blind
readers and guidance in reading, the rational selection and efficient
use of stock, the organization of work, and the library as a compensa-
tory factor for loss of vision, with sound montages provided as art.^^
An article published in Unesco Bulletin for Libraries in 1965 may
be out of date in some respects, but it does provide a very comprehen-
sive picture of library provision for blind people in the Soviet Union.
The size of the country and its population mean that provision for
blind readers is equally on a large scale with a vast output of braille
and talking books. Reading aloud to blind individuals from normal-
print sources, such as books and newspapers, seems to be a more
common activity in the USSR than in western Europe and is described
as occurring in libraries, places where blind persons work, in schools,
and in the homes of blind invalids. Literary evenings and group dis-
cussions on books which are read aloud are popular and help to bring
blind persons into the sighted community. Competitions in reading
braille are held, as in Britain, to encourage the learning of braille. Use
is made of bas-reliefs and sculpture in libraries, and book exhibitions
are accompanied by explanatory information in braille. ^^
Large-Print Publishing
As long ago as the 1880s special large-print books were produced in
Germany for children with "weak sight." The needs of the adult
reader with failing sight were neglected everywhere because of the
emphasis on provision for the blind person and also because medical
opinion, even into the 1930s, favored the preservation of residual
vision. Since then attitudes have changed and medical advice is con-
cerned with encouraging use of the sight that exists, in most cases.
The economies in the use of paper necessitated in many countries
during the Second World War, and for some years after, may have
391
That All May Read
contributed to a decline in the size of print used (and acceptance of
falling standards by the general public), and this, together with a
decline in the quality of paper, may have exacerbated reading prob-
lems for those with visual difficulties.
The (British) Library Association (LA) established a subcommittee,
Books for Readers with Defective Sight, now the Panel on Reading
for the Visually Handicapped, in 1960, with representatives from
other professions. It set about collecting information on aspects of the
problem of large-print publishing. In response to a government circu-
lar of 1963 which alerted welfare authorities and voluntary bodies to
the problems of the partially sighted and particularly asked that li-
braries set aside large-print books for those with defective vision, the
subcommittee intensified its efforts. Lists of books in larger-than-
average type had, over the years, been compiled by various public and
hospital librarians in response to a demand by readers, and the LA
published a composite list. Many of the titles listed were no longer in
print, but it was considered that they might be found in public libraries
or be available from second-hand sources. After much deliberation
and investigation, a pilot survey of potential public library demand for
specially produced large-print titles was undertaken early in 1963, and
subsequently a decision was made to proceed with a pilot project of
publishing books with the type enlarged by a xerographic process,
with a grant obtained for this purpose from the Nuffield Auxiliary
Fund.^-*
As final plans were in progress, the LA subcommittee learned of the
intention of a retired publisher, Frederick Thorpe, to embark on a
commercial venture of large-print books intended for those elderly
people whose sight was failing. The result was the publication of the
Ulverscroft Books, and the LA decided to support Thorpe instead of
publishing titles in large print. The first Ulverscroft titles were pro-
duced in 1964. Now not only is it the world's longest running large-
print series, with well over 1 ,000 titles to its credit — bought by coun-
tries all over the world where English is read — but also it has led the
way for similar large-print developments in Britain and abroad.
Large-print books have since been produced in Belgium, Denmark,
France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the
United States. One large-print publisher in the United States has also
392
In Other Countries
recently launched a series of titles in Spanish. A resolution made at the
meeting of the IFLA's Libraries in Hospitals Sub-section in 1969 that
a list of large-print publishers throughout the world be produced has
not yet resulted in the publication of such a list. Many public libraries
in Britain produce lists in large type of large-print books in their stocks
and the Disabled Living Foundation in London maintains a card index
of large-print books for inquirers. The LA also supplies information
on large-print publishers and other associated developments and has
produced Reading for the Visually Handicapped, a leaflet in large
print now in its third edition, which is intended for use by readers, as
well as librarians, and gives information on a wide range of services
for the visually handicapped reader.^®
The success everywhere of large-print books has led to other devel-
opments. In Britain a monthly newspaper in fairly large print for the
elderly, called Yours, is produced by a national charity called Help the
Aged. It acts as a vehicle for news items and information of interest to
the older age group. A weekly large-print newspaper, Age, has been
published in Melbourne, Australia; and in the United Kingdom,
Foresight, a weekly national large-print newspaper started publication
in 1980. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) does not pub-
lish a large-print edition of Radio Times, nor does it include in that
publication details in large print about radio programs. The BBC has a
weekly radio program for visually handicapped individuals, In Touch,
and a book by the same name, now in a revised edition. ^^ There is also
a weekly BBC radio program called Does He Take Sugar? concerning
physical handicaps, and a variety of similar programs appear on both
BBC and independent television. The program entitled In Touch,
gives frequent publicity to such matters as library services for the
visually handicapped and large-print developments.
The LA has mounted three conferences on aspects of provision for
the visually handicapped at which problems of print have been regu-
larly under consideration. Delegates have represented all spheres of
interest and the conferences have offered a forum for common prob-
lems and joint discussion. What was described as "the menace of
small print" was a focal point of its conference in 197 1 and the need
for the elimination of small print in such items as official forms,
insurance documents, and information on containers was stressed.-''
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That All May Read
The problems of visually handicapped readers have occupied the
LA in recent years. With permission it diverted use of the grant from
the Nuffield Auxiliary Fund to initiate research into the print needs of
the partially sighted and published Alison Shaw's report, Print for
Partial Sight, in 1969. This research established details of design such
as size and weight of type, and, to a lesser extent, type face and type
spacing, as significant factors in legibility in printing for the partially
sighted.^*
The LA, concerned that research should continue, obtained a grant
in 1977 from the British National Bibliography Research Fund for a
large print user study. Lorna Bell, a Chartered Librarian, was ap-
pointed research associate. Her report. The Large Print Book and Its
User, was published in 1980. By means of four parallel surveys, her
study included a description of the readers of large print, their knowl-
edge of services, the effects of different library policies and practices,
reasons for nonuse of services, and the role of "link" people in
conveying information about these services. ^^
It is clear that the visually handicapped reader can never be com-
pletely provided for, if provision is limited to embossed type and
large-print material. There will, probably, always be a need for
large-print material because, for some, there is no substitute for the
printed book as a reading medium, and because of the convenience in
handling it offers. However, many who are partially sighted find large
print difficult to read, even with magnifying equipment, and the
majority of those classified as blind cannot use large-print material at
all. Yet it is known that many elderly blind people — and the elderly
constitute the majority of the blind population — have difficulties in, or
a resistance to, learning to use embossed material such as braille,
difficulties described in the literature of many countries. Fortunately,
there are alternatives to both the print and the embossed book for those
with visual problems.
Recorded Materials
In Britain the impetus for research into the possibilities of recorded
books sprang from the number of servicemen blinded as a result of the
394
In Other Countries
1914-18 war. Fifteen years were spent in investigating the problem
until a satisfactory system was devised and launched in 1935 through a
service administered jointly by the RNIB and St. Dunstan's, an or-
ganization concerned with the welfare of war-blinded members of the
British armed forces. Over the years, first as the Nuffield Talking
Book Library, and now as the British Talking Book Service for the
Blind, there has been a program of continuous development and revi-
sion. Originally, special discs were used but the development of
magnetic tape revolutionized provision all over the world and led, in
1959, to use by the RNIB of tape enclosed in a cassette. About 3,400
titles are available. Because of arrangements made with the Pub-
lishers' Association to protect copyright, the RNIB has never used
open-reel tape although in many other countries open reel has been,
and in some countries still is, used in services for blind readers. The
RNIB has continued research into new techniques and, in 1967, in
association with Clarke and Smith Industries, it developed the im-
proved playback machine and cassette which are currently in use. It is
a system since adopted in Australia, Finland, Spain, and Switzerland
(Zurich), although other countries, such as Canada, Denmark, France,
most German-language countries, the Netherlands, Norway and Swe-
den, have decided to use the Philips compact cassette system, primar-
ily, it seems, because it offers compatibility with commercial cassette
equipment.^**
In Sweden, talking books were recorded on tape first by the Associ-
ation of the Blind in 1955 and, at the same time, also at the Malmo
Public Library, on the initiative of City Librarian Ingeborg Heintze.^^
Other public libraries followed the Malmo example, but these days
their participation tends to be confined to recordings on matters of
local interest, or in dialect. The two main producers of talking books
in Sweden now, Bibliotekstjanst (Btj) — the Swedish Library
Bureau — and the Association for the Blind, enabled readers to borrow
more than 100,000 talking books from the Association for the Blind in
Stockholm, and 150,000 from public libraries, in 1971.^^ Investiga-
tion was undertaken in Sweden into the advantages of adopting the
equipment developed by Clarke and Smith in Britain, as Finland de-
cided to do, or the Philips compact cassette. A number of factors were
395
That All May Read
taken into account, including sound quality, playing time, index
equipment, and the availability of duplicating machines. The Swedes
decided to adopt the Philips compact cassette because of the possibil-
ity of using commercial material in the future and the need for equip-
ment which would allow use of commercial material. Ulla Cahling
wrote in 1970: "We are also thinking of the international exchange of
talking books and periodicals, which is as yet restricted for our part to
the Scandinavian countries and Western Germany. The English-
speaking world is closed to us for two reasons: one, practical and
technical; the other formal and legal. The former barrier we can do
something about, the other is beyond our control. "^^ Sweden's blind
and partially sighted people are entitled by law to a tape recorder, free
of charge, whereas in Britain there is a small rental charge for the
recorders supplied by the RNIB, although in practice the social ser-
vices departments of most British local authorities meet this cost for
individuals. Under Swedish law, not only the approximately 15,000
registered blind and partially blind persons, but also those whose
eyesight is so weak that they cannot read normal print and those
disabled persons who have difficulty in holding books may also bor-
row talking books.
Sweden has a record of activity on behalf of all categories of disad-
vantaged individuals in society. Its library services to the blind popu-
lation date from 1885, and, in 1958, Brita Arborelius, a discerning
hospital librarian knowledgeable about experiences common to hos-
pital librarians in other countries, noted that there were few books in
large print for old people and for patients with defective vision and
that Svenska Diakonistyrelsen had published the four Gospels in large
print. ^'* (In fact, in many countries large-print versions of the Gospels
were the only large-print items available at that time.) But it was not
until 1969 that large-print books began to be produced in Sweden. Btj
has since produced a list of large-print books: some 270 in 12-point
type or larger.''^
In Britain, membership in the British Talking Book Service for the
Blind is confined to those who are registered blind individuals or who
can produce a certificate from an ophthalmologist specifying that they
cannot read normal print. About 50,000 people use this service.
A recently established British organization. Calibre (Cassette Li-
396
In Other Countries
brary for the Blind and Handicapped), provides a taped-book service
of fiction and nonfiction on ordinary, standard cassettes capable of use
with commercially available equipment. Originally only children's
titles were available, but since 1976 adult titles have been added to the
collection. Membership is open to those who can produce evidence
from a doctor certifying their inability to use printed books in the
normal way. Other organizations which provide recorded material for
physically handicapped individuals will be described later with other
services for this population.
The opportunities opened to the visually handicapped individual in
having reading material available in recorded form has led to an in-
creased interest in reading and has also attracted many former non-
readers.
One development which has had a significant effect on the availa-
bility of current news and information to the visually handicapped has
been the spread of talking newspapers and talking periodicals. In the
literature, particularly from non-English-speaking countries, the dis-
tinction between talking newspapers and talking periodicals or maga-
zines is not always clearly defined and in accounts there appears to be
some overlap. Perhaps the distinguishing feature may be seen as one
of content. The emphasis of the talking newspaper is primarily on
items of local interest and the record is not usually permanent —
cassettes are normally erased after an issue ceases to be current, and
reused. The talking periodical or magazine is usually concerned, al-
though there are exceptions, with the recording of existing commer-
cial publications on tape or cassette and often are more permanent.
Talking newspapers were pioneered nationally in Sweden where
they are distributed by some thirty-seven county libraries. Ronald
Sturt, a librarian with a record of concern and involvement with li-
brary services for handicapped persons and then a lecturer at the
College of Librarianship in Wales, observed the Swedish system on a
visit in 1968. He was so impressed that he subsequently initiated a
similar service in the United Kingdom. His success in translating ideas
into action was demonstrated in the launching, in January 1970, of a
bilingual talking newspaper in Cardiganshire, Wales. ^® Since then the
growth of talking newspapers in Britain has been phenomenal with 8
by 1974 (the year the Talking Newspaper Association of the United
397
That All May Read
Kingdom — TNAUK — was founded, with Ronald Sturt as chairper-
son), 38 by 1975, 66 by 1976, 187 by 1977, and 250 by 1978,
including 7 or 8 existing or in process in Northern Ireland. ^^ By 1979
the number had increased to over 300. The newspaper is usually
produced weekly and consists of material such as news, features, and
interviews, all predominantly with a local flavor, together with infor-
mation of particular concern to visually handicapped people. The
recording is normally carried out by volunteers. TNAUK coordinates
information on talking newspapers and offers advice and assistance in
establishing new ones.
From Sweden has been reported an experiment by one national
newspaper — Nerikes Allehanda — in which a selected group of blind
and invalid people received an hour-long cassette, every day over a
two-week period, summarizing the contents of the newspaper.^
Talking periodicals appear to be distributed in a number of coun-
tries, Canada, Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden, for
example. In Britain, Clarke and Smith have begun to produce periodi-
cals on their long-playing cassette equipment and have chosen
Reader's Digest as the first title to launch National Talking Maga-
zines.
Other developments which may be briefly mentioned include the
investigation of the special needs of visually handicapped children. A
Canadian article, in 1971 , identified some sixty-five titles of special
use to children with limited vision and described the characteristics
and features to look for in selecting such items. ^^ A paper presented at
an IFLA meeting describes how one Italian institution, the Italian
Library for the Blind at Monza, is encouraging blind children in the
use of braille, which the librarians feel will always be a format for
blind readers. Readers are encouraged to purchase their own braille
books, which are available through subsidy at the same price as the
equivalent print version.^" What has been described as the world's
first printed picture book for blind children, with abstract illustrations
printed on cardboard in relief or raised type, was pioneered in Den-
mark in 1977. It was reported then that English, French, and Dutch
versions were in preparation, that the first 20,000 copies would be on
sale early in 1978 in Austria, Germany, the Scandinavian countries,
and Switzerland, and that UNESCO was promoting the book during
398
In Other Countries
its 1979 Year of the Child. It differs from other attempts to produce
picture books for blind children in that it is available at ordinary
bookstores. This publication. What's That? by Virginia Allen Jensen
and Dorcas Woodbury Haller, is for preschool children and combines
a printed text with textured pictures enabling sighted and sight-
impaired children to share a reading experience. A second title, by
Virginia Allen Jensen. Red Thread Riddles, on the same lines, has the
text in braille as well as large print.*'
The library and information needs of visually handicapped students,
with special reference to students at British universities, were the
subject of research for a master's degree at Sheffield University,*^ and
the special needs of all handicapped students in universities and
polytechnics in the United Kingdom are receiving detailed study in
these institutions.
Technological Developments
The contribution of electronic engineering to provision for bHnd
people has accelerated over the past few years, particularly with the
growth of computer technology. Work in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries through to developments in the years following the
1939-45 War was summarized in a 1964 paper by P. W. Nye, of the
National Physical Laboratory in England.*^ Development is so rapid
and subject to change and expansion that here only some significant
features are noted .
In Israel, the Transicon — which converts print into braille — was
first demonstrated in public in 1972. (It has since been renamed the
Textobraille.) The machine embosses six-dot braille on moving paper
tape and, though wired to read English and provide English braille,
has been designed to distinguish all the characters used in Danish,
French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish and, with
minor modifications, can be wired to produce braille in those lan-
guages. Maximum continuous reading speed is said to be 120 words
per minute. One disadvantage is that it is limited in use to the braille
reader.**
The American Kurzweil Reading Machine, which translates the
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That All May Read
printed word into electronically manufactured speech, has been tested
in England by the National Physical Laboratory and has undergone
trials by the RNIB and St. Dunstan's.
The Optacon, developed in the United States, electronically pro-
duces a tactile "image" from normal print. One writer reported 110
are in use in the United Kingdom. ^^ In British tests, a senior braillist at
the RNIB, after nine months' training, achieved a speed of only 25
words per minute compared with his braille reading speed of 150.^®
Research into computer brailling is proceeding in Britain, Japan,
and the Netherlands. The advantages are many, perhaps most notably
the reduction in worker hours, in specialized personnel needed to
produce items, and in size of items stored in comparison with normal
braille volumes. Computerization has also been used in Britain in the
experimental production of embossed maps to increase blind mobil-
ity.*^ Research into many aspects of visual handicaps is continuing at
the universities of Manchester, Warwick, and, notably, at Birming-
ham in the Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handi-
capped.
An experiment in closed-circuit television (CCTV) was carried out
in Denmark's Frederiksberg Public Library from January !6 to Feb-
ruary 28, 1978, in the Reference Department. "•* It was set up in order
to establish whether improvements in reading by visually handicapped
people could be achieved by the use of CCTV compared with other
optical aids and how far those unable to use print at all could benefit
from CCTV. The equipment, already installed in some Swedish li-
braries, although no accounts have appeared in English concerning
their use, was Swedish. Basically, the equipment consists of a video
camera and a special television screen onto which an enlargement of
text scanned by the camera is transferred electronically. Enlargements
in a range of six to forty times are possible. The results of the experi-
ment were positive: some readers, for the first time in years, could
read letters from relatives or view family photographs; 90 out of 106
who had formerly not been able to make use of printed information
managed to do so and after a relatively short period of instruction; 52
out of the 90 said they would like to use CCTV if a permanent feature
in their local library.
In Britain, the Library Association, in cooperation with the library
400
In Other Countries
authority, set up a CCTV experiment in the Central Library of the
London Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in conjunction with the
advice of a consultant ophthalmologist in 1979. A six-month period of
monitoring the experiment was made possible on receipt of a grant
from the British National Bibliography Research Fund. The results
proved similar to the Danish experience. In 1980, a CCTV was in-
stalled in the North Library Reading Room of the British Library and
also at Harbome Public Library in Birmingham, which was the first
public library to install a CCTV on a permanent basis, although other
authorities have the matter under consideration.
A prototype reading aid for the partially sighted, developed by
Philips in the United Kingdom, is said to retain some of the advan-
tages of CCTV but cost less. It has been researched and tested with
partially sighted people, but its limitations include a lack of the flexi-
bility possessed by CCTV. For example, it cannot be used to read
handwritten documents. However, no plans existed for a production
model of this aid. *^
The Foundation for Audio Research and Services for Blind People,
a British organization formed in 1976, outlined its latest development
in November 1978. The use of special recording techniques and
equipment enables the recording and duplication of up to twelve hours
of high-quality reading on a standard compact cassette normally used
for ninety minutes of reading time. Modules would make it possible
for books to be read in a half to two and a half times that of the original
recording. Full-length audiobooks in a single compact cassette thus
become a commercially viable proposition. Whilst the product is not
yet commercially available, the foundation is seeking financial sup-
port to develop and market it. The "scanning" which the sighted take
for granted will thus be accessible to those without sight. The founda-
tion has an Express Reading Service, based at its Taporley Recording
Centre, and those blind and visually handicapped people with access
to the service, unfortunately limited in number by resources, can send
print materials to the centre and have up to two hours of recording
made and returned within twenty-four hours. ^"
At the 1979 meeting of IFLA's Round Table of Libraries for the
Blind, delegates heard of an exciting new development: for a six-week
trial period, a small group of blind people in Gothenburg, Sweden,
401
That All May Read
had been receiving the morning newspaper, Goeteborgs Posten,
through their telephone. By a link with a small computer terminal, the
text of the newspaper was printed in braille onto a cassette recorder in
the blind person's home. Thus the taped newspaper was available six
hours before the sighted reader had an opportunity to read it.
Specific provision for the physically handicapped reader is not so
well developed in most countries as provision for the visually handi-
capped reader. Many countries have legislation similar to that in
Britain, where the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970
requires the provision of library facilities and physical access to public
buildings, such as libraries, for those covered by the act. In this
connection, Selwyn Goldsmith, whose research has been invaluable in
guiding those planning for disabled persons, must be mentioned.^'
The extent to which such provision is made in different countries
differs widely, is often not mandatory, and may depend on the gov-
ernment or local authority's resources, generosity, or whim. The most
common form of provision for physically handicapped readers takes
the form of a housebound-reader service. The increase in the propor-
tion of elderly people in the population of many countries (14.0 per-
cent of the total population in England and Wales; 17.5 percent in
Czechoslovakia)^^ has led to a corresponding growth in such services.
Accounts in the literature tend to be very similar in every country.
They are largely descriptive of the need for and the problems in
establishing and staffing a service, together with surprise at the suc-
cess of, and appreciation for, the new venture. The writer undertook a
study, The Elderly Reader, as a research thesis for Fellowship of the
Library Association (FLA), in the early 1970s^^ and, in 1979, taught a
two-semester course in a part-time degree course on public library
services to the elderly. It is clear that more research on this important
subject needs to be done.
The revised UNESCO Public Library Manifesto and the firm rec-
ommendations in IFLA'S Standards for Public Libraries may have
helped to initiate services in some countries. ^'^ At the end of 1978 the
LA issued a consultative document (reissued in 1980) called Guide-
lines for Libraries in the Health Service, which includes service to the
patient at home.^^ This document has been discussed widely among
402
In Other Countries
organizations and interested bodies. In 1980 the LA issued a policy
statement. Library Support for Health Care Sen'ices.^^
As lias been said, there is agreement amongst librarians in many
countries that provision, such as taped services, for blind readers
should also be made available to physically handicapped individuals.
But often there are legal barriers to this extension of services, in the
form of copyright law or the naUire of financial bequests or funding.
In Britain, attempts to form an umbrella organization to provide talk-
ing books to people with all categories of handicaps were unsuccess-
ful. Thus, there exist, in addition to the provision for blind readers,
two other major services: the British Library of Tape Recordings for
Hospital Patients, which began in 1960, and the National Listening
Library, which provides a cassette service of books for physically
handicapped individuals and which was established in 1972 by the
merging of two discrete services. ^^
The enormous expansion in the number and variety of taped re-
cording services in the United Kingdom led Catherine Ireland to carry
out a systematic study of those which were available. The published
result of her FLA thesis study is the most comprehensive directory of
existing taped services in England and Wales. ^*
The need of physically handicapped people for reading aids, such as
page-turners, bookstands, and recumbent spectacles, first became ap-
parent in library services to hospital patients, and it is in the profes-
sional literature of that specialty that information and illustrations of
equipment are mostly found, for example in Britain, Finland, and
Sweden,^^ although many countries also have national organizations
which issue detailed information about aids. In Sweden a leaflet de-
scribing some aids for the handicapped may be found in most post
offices, so the general public becomes aware of what exists. In Bri-
tain, one publication. Communication, comprehensively identifies
and illustrates writing and reading aids and is part of a series of
publications of aids to daily living, under the title Equipment for the
Disabled.®" Research into the comparative efficiency of a wide range
of page-turners,®' microfilm projectors, and prismatic spectacles was
carried out by the Research Institute of Consumer Affairs in 1969,®^
and Alison Shaw undertook an investigation into writing and reading
403
That All May Read
aids for the physically disabled in 1970.*^ A British standard for book
holders, magnifiers, and prismatic spectacles was produced in De-
cember 1973, on the instigation of the Library Association's Hospital
Libraries and Handicapped Readers Group, which had become con-
cerned at the duplication of aids and the apparent lack of standards.®*
IFLA's Libraries in Hospitals Sub-section, with cooperation from its
representatives in some member countries, published its International
Directory of Technical Reading Aids in 1975.®^
One title, with an emphasis on British and American services.
Outreach, by Gerald Bramley, covers library services for blind and
partially sighted readers in addition to discussing services for dis-
abled, elderly, mentally handicapped, and deaf populations. It may be
a useful source to fill out details of services inevitably described
briefly here.®®
Another title, which was received for review as this manuscript was
in the final stages of preparation, deserves mention here: Libraries
and the Handicapped Child, by Margaret R. Marshall, who has con-
siderable experience and expertise in this field. Her book covers much
of the same ground as this chapter, in greater detail than is possible
here, but with emphasis on the child. Marshall has traveled in some
twenty-one countries, and her publication reflects this international
experience in her descriptions of different library services in various
parts of the world. This is an important publication as it contains
information on services which has relevance for all librarians con-
cerned with handicapped people, not only those with specific interest
in services to children.®^
In the preparation and revision of this paper, the writer has become
more than ever aware of the unevenness of provision and the lack of
documentation. An effort to verify the size of the braille stock in one
important collection, for example, produced a different figure from
each of three reputable sources: 2,500, 8,000, and 34,000 volumes. It
was decided to omit any reference to the size of the stock, but this is
one example of the difficulties in presenting an accurate picture of
provision.
Whilst it must be noted that the designation of 198 1 by UNESCO
as the International Year of Disabled Persons has resulted in increased
404
In Other Countries
reporting of services — existing and planned — and a new attention to
such provision, it has, unfortunately, coincided with a period of finan-
cial recession in many countries.
As an Australian reviewer of Schauder and Cram's Libraries for the
Blind noted, the book "supports the arguments and need for co-
operation and the involvement of the professional librarian and the
community."*'^ Perhaps, with real involvement by all countries
through IFLA's channels it may be possible to achieve the necessary
cooperation and involvement on an international scale.
NOTES
1 . Frank Gardner, "Hospital Libraries: The International Scene." in Hospital
Library Services Siin'eyed, 1 964 conference papers of the Hospital Libraries and
Handicapped Readers Group, Library Association (London: Library Association,
1965), pp. 58-63.
2. Donald E. Schauder and Malcolm D. Cram, Libraries for the Blind: An Inter-
national Study of Policies and Practices (Stevenage, England: Peter Peregrinus,
1977).
3. Des Pickering and Helen Modra, Library Services to the Disadvantaged: A
Report to the Nation (Melbourne, Australia: Library Promotion Council, 1973), pp.
23.40-41.
4. W.D. Richardson etal., "It's All a Matter ofWhat You Know: Submission to
the Library Association of Australia to the Committee of Inquiry into Public Librar-
ies,"/4m jrra/(an Library Journal 24:413-459 (October-November 1975, Part B).
5. Library Services for the Handicapped: A National Consultative Seminar (Can-
berra: National Library of Australia, 1978); Donald E. Schauder, "Library Services
for Handicapped People: Arenas, Players and Stakes," Australian Library Journal
29:124-128 (August 1980).
6. National Library of Australia, Working Party on Library Services for the Handi-
capped, Report of the Working Parry on Library Services for the Handicapped: April
1979 (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1979).
7. Department of Education and Science, The Staffing of Public Libraries, Library
Information Series, no. 7 (London: HMSO, 1976), 3:1-89.
8. Andrew Morrow, "Serving the Housebound in Northern Ireland: One Year's
V/ork," Assistant Librarian 69:166-169 (October 1976).
9. Department of Education and Science, The Libraries' Choice, Library Infor-
mation Series, no. 10 (London: HMSO, 1978).
10. Bjorg Heie, "Literature and Library Services for the Handicapped in Nor-
way," Scandinax'ian Public Library Quarterly 9 (1976):92-97.
405
That All May Read
11. Ian Wees and J. Ross Hotson, "Library Service to the Handicapped," Cana-
dian Library Journal 33:473-479 (October 1976).
12. LiisaPerheentupa, "Varmnaisten kirjastopalvelutvaltion vastuulle" [The
state should be responsible for library services to the handicapped] , Kirjasiolehti 70
(1977):270-272; (Library and Information Science Abstracts 78/801).
13. Schauder and Cram, Libraries for the Blind, p. 20.
14. NinaThuesen and Per Nyeng, "De knappejOkonomiske bevillinger erBlin-
debiblitekets stjorste problem" [Meagre financial grants are the greatest problem for
the Library for the Blind ], Bibliotek 70 ( 1976):541-544; (Library and Information
Science Abstracts 77/760).
15. D. Heleen Rosskopf, "The Co-ordinated Library Services for Blind Students"
(Paper presented at the International Federation of Library Associations General
Council Meeting, Brussels, 1977).
16. See D. A. Matthews, "Library Services for the Blind," inProgress in Library
Science. 1967, ed. Robert L. Collison (London; Butterworth, 1967), pp. 134-150.
17. David Matthews, "Library Services for the Visually Handicapped," in Hos-
pital Libraries and Work with the Disabled, ed. Mona E. Going, 2nd ed. (London:
Library Association, 1973), p. 253.
18 . The Education of the Visually Handicapped: Report of the Committee of
Enquiry Appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science in October
1965 (London: HMSO, 1972), p. 68. Commonly called the Vernon Report.
19. Jadwiga Kolodziejska, "Specjalne zadania bibliotek publicznych" [Special
services of public libraries ] , Bibliotekarz 39 ( 1972):332-337; (Library and Informa-
tion Science Abstracts 73/1 196).
20. P. R. Shihn, "Library Facilities for the Blind in Delhi Public Library," Indian
Librarian 28:26-27 (June 1973).
21. Isao Watanabe, [Library service for the blind and visually handicapped],
Toshokan-Kai 25:61-73 (August 1973); (Library and Information Science Abstracts
74/146).
22. L. L Zaderman, "Nauchno-issledovatel' skaya robota bibliotek dlya slepykh"
[Research work in libraries for the blind] , Sovetskoe Bibliotekovedenie 5
(1977):50-59; (Library and Information Science Abstracts 78/139).
23. A. E. Saposnikov, "Library Services for the Blind in the Soviet Union,"
UNESCO Bulletin for Libraries 19:246-250. (September-October 1965)
24. M. Joy Lewis, "Large Print Book Publishing," Library Association Record
79:93-94 (May 1971).
25. Library Association, Reading for the Visually Handicapped, 3rd ed. (London:
Library Association, 1978).
26. Margaret Ford and Thena Heshel, In Touch: Aids and Services for Blind and
Partially Sighted People, rev. ed. (London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1977).
27. Print for the Visually Handicapped Reader: Papers and Proceedings of a
Conference Sponsored by the Library Association and the National Association for
the Education of the Partially Sighted and Held on 28 October 1 970 at the Common-
406
In Other Countries
wealth Hall, London, Library Association Research Publication, no. 6 (London:
Library Association, 1971); Clear Print: Papers and Proceedings of a Conference
Sponsored by the Library Association and the National Association for the Education
of the Partially Sighted and Held on 20 October 1971 at the Commonwealth Hall.
London, Library Association Research Publication, no. 9 (London: Library Associa-
tion, 1972); The Reading Needs of the Hard of Seeing: Papers and Proceedings of a
Conference Sponsored by the Library Association and the National Association for
the Education of the Partially Sighted and Held on 5 June 1973 at the Commonwealth
Hall, London, Library Association Research Publication, no. 13 (London: Library
Association, 1974).
28 . Alison Shaw , Print for Partial Sight: A Report to the Library Association
Sub-committee on Books for Readers with Defective Sight (London: Library Associa-
tion, 1969). See also Alison Shaw"s "Reading, Print, and the Reader," inHospital
Libraries and Work with the Disabled, pp. 220-234.
29. Loma J. Bell, The Large Print Book and Its User, Library Association Re-
search Publication, no. 22 (London: Library Association, 1980).
30. Schauder and Cram, Libraries for the Blind, pp. 5-9.
31. UllaCahling, "The Supply of Books to the Blind and Partially Sighted in
Sweden," Scandinavian Public Library Quarterly 3 ( 1970):87-88.
32. International Federation of Library Associations, Libraries in Hospitals Sub-
section, Organisation. Description of Work and Statistics of Library Ser\'ices in
Hospitals, Institutions and for the Handicapped in Australia, Belgium. Denmark,
FDR, Finland, New Zealand. Poland, Sweden (The Hague, 1977).
33. Cabling, "The Supply of Books to the Blind and Partially Sighted in Swe-
den," p. 94.
34. Brita Arborelius, ' 'Technical Aids," in The Hospital Library in Sweden,
Library Association Pamphlet, no. 23 (London: Library Association, 1962), pp.
19-20.
35. Kjerstin Linderberg, Backer med stor stil [Books with large type ] (Lund,
Sweden: Bibliotekstjanst, 1971).
36. "The Talking Newspaper," Library World 72:44-45 (August 1970).
37. Patricia Santinelli, "Newspapers That Talk You Back into Touch with Your
Local Community," Times Higher Education Supplement, 28 October 1971, p. 9.
38. P. R. Craddock, "Talking Newspapers and Library and Information Needs of
the Visually Handicapped," An Leabharlann 7:54-65 (Summer 1978).
39. Dorothy Simpson-Ray, comp., "Books for Children with Limited Vision,"
Ontario Libran Review 55:128-140 (June 1971).
40. A. Ammannato, Work with Children by the Italian Library for the Blind at
Monza," International Library Review 9:205-207 (April 1977).
41 . "Printed Picture Book for Blind Children," Belfast Telegraph 17 December
1977.
42. P. M. Judd, "The Library and Information Needs of Visually Handicapped
Students: A Survey of the Problems with Some Suggestions for Academic Library
Policy ," Journal of Librarianship 9:96-107 (April 1977).
407
That All May Read
43. P. W. Nye, "Reading Aids for Blind People: A Survey of Progress with the
Technological and Human Problems," Medical Electronics and Biological En-
gineering 2:247-264 (July 1964).
44. Hillel Bar-Lev, "The Transicon," Australian Library Journal 22:471-472
(December 1973).
45. "Electronic Reading Aids," in M ToMc/i 12:3 (July 1978).
46. CeliaHaddon, "Search for the Seeing Machine," 5««(fo>' T/mei. 28 January
1973.
47. J. M.Gill, "Mobility Maps for the Blind," Pro/ecr, Spring 1974, pp. 22-23,
35.
48 . P. Hansen et al . , Rapport over fors0gsopstilling af closed circuit television
(CCTV) 16 January-28 Februar 1978 [Report on the experimental provision of
closed circuit television (CCTV) 16 January-28 February 1978 ](Denmark: Fre-
deriksberg Kommunes Bibliotekar, 1978).
49. A. Browne, "A Reading Aid for the Partially Sighted," Electronics and
Power 24:592-595 (August 1978).
50. Information provided to the Library Association Panel for Reading for the
Visually Handicapped, press release, November 1978.
51 . Selwyn Goldsmith, Designing for the Disabled. 3rd rev. ed. (London: RIBA,
1976).
52. Department of Health and Social Security and Welsh Office. A Happier Old
Age: A Discussion Document on Elderly People in Our Society (London: HMSO,
1978); Department of Health and Social Security, Growing Older (London: HMSO,
1981); Adela Martausova, "Stan I'udia acitanie" [Senior citizen reading], Citatel'
25 ( 1976):255-257; I Library and Information Science Abstracts 76/2609).
53. M. Joy Lewis, The Elderly Reader: A Study of the Reading Needs of, and the
Scope of Library Services to. the Elderly (University Microfilms, 1975).
54. UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, reprinted in International Federation of
Library Associations, Section of Public Libraries, Standards for Public Libraries
(Pullack/Munich: Veriag Dokumentation, 1973). Paragraphs 53-61 relate to handi-
capped readers.
55. Library Association, Guidelines for Library Provision in the Health Service: A
Consultative Document (London: Library Association, 1978).
56. Library Association, Library Support for Health Care Services: A Policy
Statement (London: Library Association, 1980).
57. John Graham, "The National Listening Library," Assistant Librarian
67:1 12-1 14 (July 1974).
58. Catherine M. Ireland, Tape Services to the Blind and Physically Handicapped
in England and Wales (London: City of London Polytechnic, 1980).
59. M. Joy Lewis, "Equipment," in Hospital Libraries and Work with the Dis-
abled, pp. 157- 172, plates on pp. 287-290; Laitoskirjasto toiminnan opas Potilaiden
ja vammaisryhmien kirjastopalvelut [Manual of institutional librarianship: library
services to patients and handicapped readers] (Finland: Suomen Kirjastoscura, 1980);
Lena Sewall, Bibliotek pa sjukhus: Om backer, konst och musik i vardsituationen
In Other Countries
[Library in the hospital; On books, art and music in the wards] , 2nd rev. ed. (Lund,
Sweden; Bibliotekstjanst, 1976). This work was first pubHshed under the title Att
arbeta i sjukhusbibliotek.
60. E. R. Wilshere, comp. . Communication. 5th ed. , Equipment for the Disabled
(Oxford, England: Oxford Regional Health Authority. 1980).
61 . Research Institute for Consumer Affairs, Reading Aids-Page Turners, The
Disabled User, RICA Comparative Test Reports, no. 2 (London; National Fund for
Research into Crippling Diseases, 1969).
62. Research Institute for Consumer Affairs. Microfilm Projectors and Prismatic
Spectacles, The Disabled User, RICA Comparative Test Reports, no. 3 and no. 4
(London: National Fund for Research into Crippling Diseases, 1970).
63. Alison Shaw, " 'Writing and Reading Aids for the Physically Disabled," 7oMr-
nal of Librarianship 4:75-90, 97 (April 1972).
64. British Standards \nst\\\it\on. Specifications for Book Holders, Magnifiers,
and Prismatic Spectacles for Use as Reading Aids in Hospitals and the Home (Lon-
don; British Standards Institution, 1973).
65. International Federation of Library Associations, Libraries in Hospitals Sub-
section, International Directory of Technical Reading Aids (The Hague: Nederlands
Bibliotheek en Lektuur Centrum, 1975).
66. Gerald Bramley , Outreach: Library Services for the Institutionalised, the El-
derly, and the Physically Handicapped (London; Bingley; Hamden, Conn ; Linnet,
1978).
67. Margaret R. Marshall, Libraries and the Handicapped Child (London;
Deutsch, 1981).
68. Fay Winter, "Libraries for the Blind: Review," /I i«/ra//an Library Journal
27:127 (May 1978).
409
International Cooperation
Frank Kurt Cylke
When the Library of Congress was given a congressional mandate in
1931 to provide a national library service for blind adults, there was a
plethora of service concepts and technology at home and abroad on
which to build. Braille production was modeled on European as well
as American precedents. Talking-book machines were built and mod-
ified using British as well as American technological developments.
In addition to adopting and adapting foreign technical devel-
opments, the Library of Congress program continued the practices of
the Library of Congress reading room for blind individuals, which had
a modest record of international cooperation. It sporadically worked
out bilateral arrangements for the reciprocal purchase, loan, or ex-
change of materials and its staff exchanged visits with librarians from
other countries.
Between the mid-40s and the early 1970s, international involve-
ment of the Library of Congress program's staff could be described as
desultory. In the 1940s and 1950s surplus and duplicate books were
made available to the American Foundation for the Overseas Blind
and to the State Department, which had requested materials for the
East African School for the Blind in Thiba, Kenya, and for the U.S.
Library in Cairo. Braille and talking books were procured for Great
Britain, international journal articles and report literature were re-
viewed for information, and two staff members represented the Li-
brary at international conferences of the World Council for the Wel-
fare of the Blind. In reporting on the possibility of developing re-
lationships with library organizations outside the United States,
neither representative saw any benefit to the Library of Congress in
international involvement.
That attitude has changed.
Frank Kurt Cylke is direclor of the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, the
Library of Congress.
411
That All May Read
It has been estimated that 75 million people throughout the world
cannot read printed materials because of blindness or other physical
handicaps. But the quantity of materials produced in special format for
them is never more than a small fraction of the world's print output. A
recent survey in Denmark showed that visually handicapped readers
there had access to only about 2 percent of the fiction and poetry
published in print. Today the National Library Service for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped, the Library of Congress (NLS), mass-
produces about two thousand book titles a year and volunteers pro-
duce an additional eight hundred titles for NLS in single copies or
limited quantities; in contrast, the United States produces each year
about forty thousand new commercial book titles in standard print,
approximately the total number of separate titles generally available in
braille, recorded form, or large type through the Library of Congress
program after fifty years of service. The quantity of materials pro-
duced in special format in any single nation is inadequate to serve the
professional, educational, informational, and cultural needs of its
handicapped readers, who are therefore disadvantaged in their attempt
to lead full, active, and independent lives in society.
At the same time, legal and technical barriers prevent libraries from
fully sharing their collections internationally, and duplication of effort
occurs among producers of special-format reading materials in various
countries. At times the Library of Congress has learned that another
English-speaking country was planning to produce a work already
brailled or recorded for its own NLS collection. International sharing
of materials allows the other country to produce a work neither library
owns and both benefit. Similarly, duplication of effort exists in re-
search and development, resulting in redundant or incompatible prod-
ucts. Or a library working in isolation may make a technological
advance or instimte an innovative service which is not adopted by
other countries, which are simply unaware of it. This lack of coopera-
tion represents an unconscionable waste of scarce resources.
National and international organizations devoted to the welfare of
blind people have played a significant role in matters relating to read-
ing materials for handicapped people. However, the primary thrust of
their activities has been toward the production of materials rather than
412
International Cooperation
the library functions of acquisition, storage, and retrieval of informa-
tion.
International approaches to the improvement of library services to
the handicapped population are best addressed by an organization of
librarians such as the International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA), rather than by organizations devoted to the welfare of the
blind. The production and dissemination of materials in special for-
mats such as braille and audiotape are a responsibility usually assumed
by a nation's charitable or governmental agencies. Regardless of or-
ganizational structure, such libraries function within the broad scope
of the library and information science community. Library service for
handicapped people has the same philosophical base as that for
nonhandicapped people. Many of the service and technical approaches
are identical; those not identical are quite closely allied. Although
providing appropriate library material for blind and handicapped
people has necessitated the use of mechanical, electrical, and elec-
tronic engineering disciplines, the medium selected must relate to
service and library philosophy.
Yet, historically, international library organizations have not con-
cerned themselves very much with this field. Donald Schauder and
Malcolm Cram found in 1976 that "IFLA and other international
library bodies have been less active than might be expected in the field
of library service to the blind. " They remarked that "perhaps IFLA's
most notable contribution was made at its 1953 conference in Vienna
where certain members of the public library section were asked to
consider the international aspects of the talking book."' But by 1976
the Library of Congress had already initiated discussions about estab-
lishing the first international organization of libraries for handicapped
readers.
In 1977, as director of NLS and with the assistance of Karen Ren-
ninger, former assistant chief of the NLS Network Division, I for-
mally proposed that IFLA serve as the coordinating body for the
development of international technical and service guidelines in li-
brary services to blind and physically handicapped people. As a result,
that year a Working Group on Libraries for the Blind was established
under what was then the Hospital Libraries Section of IFLA. This
413
That All May Read
group became the IFLA Round Table of Libraries for the Blind and
has met annually since 1977. After serving as chairperson for the first
two years, I became executive secretary in 1979. By 1981, ninety
countries were represented.
The Round Table has defined two prime objectives. One is en-
couraging the establishment of library services to handicapped popu-
lations in countries where it does not exist and expansion of service
where it does. The other is removing the major obstacles to the free
international flow of special-format materials; such obstacles include
inadequate bibliographic control, nonstandardized formats, cumber-
some copyright restrictions, and unfavorable postal laws and customs
regulations.
With regard to developing countries, the Round Table has taken
several steps to help improve library services to handicapped people.
Since 1979, two libraries have paid both IFLA dues and travel ex-
penses to IFLA meetings for a different developing country each year
in order to assure its active participation. The Round Table also en-
courages its members to assist in finding support for library services in
developing countries. Through their efforts a librarian from Africa has
received a Martinus Nijhoff Study Grant. Two African librarians have
been invited to an IFLA presession seminar to share information.
In June 1980, the Round Table and the World Council for the
Welfare of the Blind (WCWB) sponsored a two-day seminar in
Washington, D.C. , for the purpose of setting up a cooperative pro-
duction facility and exchange program in Latin America. Participants
included Costa Rica, Panama, Brazil, and Spain. The seminar decided
to establish a central audio production facility in Brazil which would
produce 100 titles annually beginning in January 1982, half in Spanish
and half in Portuguese. Other subjects discussed were braille produc-
tion, gift and exchange programs, postal and customs regulations,
service patterns, and the standardization of talking-book formats.
In November 1980, the Round Table conducted a three-day biling-
ual seminar funded primarily by UNESCO for representatives of
twelve African countries, in Arusha, Tanzania. The purpose of the
seminar was to promote interest in library services to visually handi-
capped people, to share information, and to suggest ways of develop-
ing an extended library service. At the end of the meeting, the semi-
414
International Cooperation
nar's first-priority recommendation was establishing a national braille
press in each participating country and producing braille educational
materials, as well as increasing access to existing materials through
interlibrary loan nationally and internationally. Although the lack of
playback equipment is a problem, the seminar also recommended
establishing talking-book production facilities. As a result of the
seminar, IFLA asked UNESCO to incorporate library services to the
blind in the UNESCO Public Library Manifesto.
UNESCO has suggested a new project to the Round Table: braille
production of children's literature in Africa.
All libraries, not only those in developing countries, can cut costs
and expand their collections through international sharing of mate-
rials, but a number of obstacles must be overcome.
In the first place, each library must know what is available and
where. Schauder and Cram found "no way of checking the holdings
of foreign countries other than by obtaining their printed catalogues,"
but there was "no reliable directory of libraries for the blind" to assist
them.^ The Round Table is compiling a directory of braille and re-
corded book libraries and production facilities which will provide
information about the location and administration of 500 libraries, the
formats of materials they produce and hold, the language in which
they produce materials, the materials they make available through
international interlibrary loan, and the catalogs they publish. The di-
rectory is funded by UNESCO and the American Foundation for the
Blind. The Round Table plans to establish an information center to
receive and distribute updated information.
Insofar as catalogs are concerned, the Round Table has embarked
on a long-term project — bibliographic control. The delegates of each
of the countries represented on the Round Table are charged with
selecting a bibliographic center for special-format materials. Each
national center will build a national union catalog containing both
existing and new materials for handicapped individuals. Catalogs will
provide the data needed to identify and select books and will be
arranged to facilitate searching. These national union catalogs will
serve not only the usual purpose of locating desired material but also
the unique function of allowing producers, ultimately throughout the
world, to ascertain whether a requested book is already available in
415
That All May Read
special format, thereby avoiding duplication and freeing resources for
another book.
The Round Table is also developing an international standard for
individual bibliographic records such as catalog cards. Standardiza-
tion will allow each country's catalogs and bibliographic data to be
readily understood in other countries; it will also reduce cataloging
costs since libraries will acquire the bibliographic record along with
the special-format item. International standards for media of exchange
such as national bibliographies or machine-readable records are also
being developed. Each country will determine the best method of
publishing its catalog and explore ways of making it available to other
countries.
Australia has begun publishing its national union catalog quarterly
as a machine-held file with computer-produced fiche output, which
permits wide distribution. The catalog is cumulative and is expected to
grow at a rate of one thousand titles per month.
The United States is in the process of creating a national union
catalog by gradually expanding its quarterly computer-produced mi-
crofiche catalog of items mass-produced by the Library of Congress
since the early 1960s to include materials from all sources in the
country.
The Round Table's ultimate goal is a single universally intelligible,
widely distributed global union catalog which would enable any
librarian in any library to locate special-format materials for handi-
capped readers.
But such a catalog will be useless unless readers in one country can
use materials from another. That means formats must be standardized.
With traditional production costs rising and the opportunity for stand-
ardization presented by new technology, it is vital that we not repeat
the mistakes of the past with regard to parochialism and the diversity
of formats now in existence. Louis Braille published his code in the
1830s. It took about 100 years for the English-speaking countries to
decide braille was the best embossing system and to agree on a single
uniform braille code. A uniform code for Spanish was not adopted
until 1951.
While braille is the generally accepted tactile representation of
print, the debate continues over contractions, that is, abbreviations for
416
International Cooperation
frequently occurring combinations of letters and words. Most coun-
tries employ them. Some, most notably the Netherlands, have decided
to produce materials only in uncontracted braille. Most German com-
puter-produced braille texts are only slightly contracted, while hand-
transcribed and press braille materials are quite extensively con-
tracted. Of course, the letter combinations which recur frequently vary
from language to language and so do the braille symbols representing
them. The international sharing of contracted braille is technically
possible, but relatively few braille readers learn the contraction codes
of more than one language. Uncontracted braille would facilitate in-
ternational sharing of materials; however, contraction reduces the cost
and size of braille books and increases the speed at which they can be
transcribed and read, both important considerations. International
cooperation in the application of modem technologies may eventually
eliminate the controversy over the relative merits of contracted and
uncontracted braille.
In the Danish semiautomated braille production system, for exam-
ple, a keypunch operator can in three days enter a 250-page print
book, equivalent to about 450-500 interpointed braille sheets. The
computer can translate the book into braille in about two minutes and a
line printer can braille a single copy of 400 sheets in only twenty to
thirty minutes. Moreover, the Danish system provides the option of
supplying uncontracted, grade 1 '/2 , or grade 2 braille on request. The
translation is controlled by a dictionary containing the rules for trans-
lation into the desired grade of braille rather than by the translation
program itself. Therefore, by using a different dictionary, the same
program can be used to translate the text into either uncontracted or
contracted braille. (For that matter, given an appropriate dictionary, it
could translate the Danish text into English braille.) The Round Table
goal is the incorporation of this refinement into all existing and future
computerized systems in order to facilitate the international exchange
of material by offering readers a choice of contracted or uncontracted
braille. It also encourages the exchange of tapes rather than hard copy
when braille is produced by computers.
Using compositor tapes created to set type for print books as input
for braille production eliminates keyboarding from the print copy and
the resulting delay in production, a pernicious situation for students,
417
That All May Read
working people, and others who need timely materials. In fact, it may
be technically feasible for the print and braille editions of a new work
to appear simultaneously. In the last few years the print industry has
been using compositor tapes at a rapidly increasing rate. Such tapes
contain all the words and punctuation in the text and, if machine-
readable, can provide input to a computer for translation to braille,
keeping human intervention to a minimum. Denmark, the Nether-
lands, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States have
conducted successful trials. Sweden is increasing its braille output by
using compositor tapes.
One problem with using compositor tapes is that special codes
needed for producing the print book — instructions for type face and
page layout, for example — must be deleted. Unfortunately, composi-
tion codes within the print industry vary considerably and therefore a
special preprocessor to delete instructions may be needed for each
printer. Some sort of international clearinghouse for preprocessors
may be needed, since it is unlikely the print industry will agree on a
single code.
However, this problem must be weighed against the possible ad-
vantages of using compositor tapes. Nationally, libraries would enjoy
faster production of more timely titles with greater flexibility of for-
mat and at reduced cost. Internationally, interlibrary loan would be
facilitated. For example, when a requested book that was mass-
produced using zinc plates is not immediately available, either the
patron must wait for a copy or the borrowing library must transcribe
the work again because it is too expensive to set up the press for a
single copy. Computerized braille production would allow the eco-
nomical production of a single copy on the line printer as needed.
With regard to paperless or cassette braille, at present the technical
specifications of the various reading machines determine the arrange-
ment on the tape of the digital signals that activate the pins forming the
braille cells. The resulting diversity of arrangements, like the various
composition codes in the print industry, reduces the possibilities of
sharing materials internationally. The Round Table is working toward
standardized cassettes.
These technological advances in braille production, still in various
stages of experimentation and development, if left to repeat the history
418
International Cooperation
of the braille code, can create even more and greater barriers to the
international sharing of resources than already exist. Clearly, it is
imperative that the new technology be brought under the auspices of
an international library and materials production organization to as-
sure it becomes a unifying force through the greatest degree of stand-
ardization at the most critical points. The Round Table has, therefore,
established a technology committee and proposes to work with the
electronics industry to develop compatible products. The committee
coordinates its activities with parallel committees of the WCWB. It
also disseminates information about braille production. A review of
braille technology by PauUi Thomsen, a Round Table member repre-
senting Denmark, has been published in the Journal of Visual Im-
pairment and Blindness.^
The diversity of recorded formats does not per se preclude the
international sharing of materials, but it does complicate it inasmuch
as libraries must have playback devices for the various formats. The
United States has established formal international interlibrary loan
relations with fifteen to twenty countries that may borrow NLS mate-
rials but must purchase equipment. Other libraries may not duplicate
NLS international interlibrary loan materials; ownership remains with
NLS. However, if their equipment is compatible, libraries in other
countries sometimes buy NLS material directly from the nonprofit
producer. Or, if their equipment is not compatible, NLS sometimes
provides a submaster and the acquiring library duplicates it in another
format after receiving permission from the copyright holder.
The Round Table has established a subcommittee to identify audio
needs, review proposed equipment, and stay abreast of the state of the
art of recorded formats. Areas of particular concern are talking-book
standards and formats, indexing systems, and the postcassette era.
The Round Table takes the position that recorded formats should be
determined solely by convenience to the user and cost effectiveness. It
has requested that the Library of Congress permit use of its cassette-
book machine in other countries — a request which was granted with
the legally required stipulation that the machine be used only by blind
and physically handicapped persons. About nineteen countries have
purchased NLS machines. The Round Table's goals include a reduc-
tion in the number of formats and eventually an international stand-
419
That All May Read
ardization of formats — reel, disc, or cassette; speed and track
configuration — and of master-tape recording practices.
Speed and track configurations requiring special playback equip-
ment create a closed system, one with controlled access limited to
eligible persons. Braille is by nature a closed system. A closed system
for recorded materials protects the copyright owner's rights. The two
rights which must be balanced with regard to copyright are illustrated
by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which
states that "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and
material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic
production of which he is the author" and "everyone has the right
freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the
arts and share in scientific advancement and its benefits."^ Copyright
law must protect the personal and property rights of authors in their
creation, their exclusive right to control its reproduction, publication,
and performance, for the licensing of which authors are entitled to
receive payment. On the other hand, copyright law must promote the
social needs of the community, including serving the public interest
by making products of the intellect accessible to all. Insofar as blind
and physically handicapped readers are concerned, the special formats
they require derogate from their rights as consumers of library books.
Very few national copyright laws make special provisions facilitat-
ing the production of special-format materials for handicapped
readers; those that do, make more generous provisions for braille
materials. Such special provisions achieve a socially desirable
objective — providing access to published materials to those who can-
not use conventional print because of a physical handicap — by der-
ogating from the rights of the copyright holder. In countries which do
not legislate such special provisions, domestic law requires that per-
mission be obtained for each title and each format.
Libraries tend to request narrow permissions, according to their
organization, function, and legal restrictions. One may ask permission
to make a master and a single free duplicate for a smdent, while
another seeks permission to produce a work in special format for sale
to individuals or to libraries within a specific geographical area. By
making requests as specific as possible, an agency increases its
chances of receiving an unconditional affirmative response.
420
International Cooperation
Although the production of materials for handicapped readers is an
anomaly in the publishing industry, copyright owners and the pro-
ducers themselves have treated special-format works in the same way
as print books, for which distribution rights are divided geographi-
cally. Thus, specific permission or the law itself may preclude the
exchange, duplication, or sale of special-format materials outside a
limited jurisdiction. Agencies that wish to acquire for their own col-
lections special-format materials produced in another country gener-
ally seek the broader permission themselves. In one case, however,
the Library of Congress, in response to inquires from abroad, obtained
permission from American magazine publishers to offer, on a selec-
tive basis, subscriptions to periodicals it produces in special format to
foreign libraries and organizations serving the reading needs of blind
and physically handicapped people. ,
Clearly, in many countries and internationally, copyright is one
reason for the insufficiency of materials for the handicapped reader, as
it can delay, encumber, restrict, or prevent the production and dis-
semination of special-format materials. The WCWB concluded in
1976 that exemption from international copyright conventions, which
are multinational agreements on copyright, for the transcription of
material in embossed, recorded, and large-type formats for handi-
capped readers was crucial and began the slow process required to
effect change. The Round Table supports the WCWB's effort and
pursues other avenues as well.
It is sponsoring a study to identify specific copyright problems,
recommend national and international solutions, and provide the basis
for Round Table policy. The situation is a complex one. At the na-
tional level a domestic law reflects a more or less homogeneous
philosophy; at the international level, not only heterogeneous
philosophies but disparate legal systems must be accommodated. The
day when the original transcription of a work into special format for
handicapped readers is universally recognized as a world resource will
be long in coming. In the meantime, more favorable domestic legisla-
tion will be achieved in many nations.
The Round Table is gathering data on how long it takes to transport
special-format library materials as postage-free surface mail, how
much damage occurs to them in transport, and how often they are lost
421
That All May Read
in international mails. This information will be used in a study of
alternate means of transmission, including airmail. The Round Table
is working with national library associations to encourage interna-
tional air transport associations to extend stand-by air rates, which at
present are available only on flights with little cargo. It is also devel-
oping standard labels identifying special materials for handicapped
individuals in order to secure their easy acceptance as postage-free
mail and their easy passage through customs.
Like copyright laws, postal laws and customs regulations tend to be
more liberal for braille materials. The Round Table is attempting to
extend the list of postage-free articles to include materials designed for
other physically handicapped persons besides those who are blind:
large-print materials (books, periodicals, catalogs, and other materials
describing collections), phonographs, cassette players, parts for the
repair of these machines, and other reading equipment specially de-
signed for handicapped people.
An inevitable and fruitful concomitant of the Round Table's other
activities is the systematic exchange of information about production,
library services, and handicapping conditions. As part of this system-
atic exchange of information, I, as executive secretary of the Round
Table, collect information of international interest and distribute it to
about 250 libraries and other interested organizations twice a month.
In addition to publications already mentioned, the Round Table is
involved in other publishing endeavors. It is preparing an international
biobibliographical directory of blind persons in science and cultural
affairs, a project suggested by D. S. Zharkov, director of the Republi-
can Central Library for the Blind, Moscow. Round Table delegates
from Canada, France, Norway, and the United States wrote essays on
formats, copyright, international relations, postal regulations and
customs law, and bibliographic control for Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped: An International Approach, pub-
lished in 1979.^ "International Co-ordination of Library Services for
Blind and Physically Handicapped Individuals: An Overview of IFLA
Activities" appeared in a UNESCO journal in the fall of 1979.®
Further, the Round Table has developed close working relation-
ships and exchanged valuable information with a number of national
and international organizations.
422
International Cooperation
The benefits accruing to the Library of Congress and other libraries
for handicapped readers from international cooperation are many but
at present modest. They will only increase in time. Through sharing
materials we have expanded our national collections and improved our
foreign-language collections. We have learned about new service
systems and production technology, which we can review, evaluate,
and possibly implement. We have achieved some economies. We
have begun national union catalogs and are exchanging them. In addi-
tion, we have enjoyed the social benefits derived from the creation or
expansion of services in developing countries. Perhaps most impor-
tant, we have begun to exercise a significant influence on the devel-
opment of the technology we must use and on the international condi-
tions under which we must work. The effect has been synergistic and
the ultimate beneficiaries are handicapped readers everywhere.
NOTES
1 . Donald E. Schauder and Malcolm D. Cram, Libraries for the Blind: An Inter-
national Study of Policies and Practices (Stevenage, England: Petpr Peregrinus,
1977), p. 102.
2. Ibid., p. 62.
3. Paulli Thomsen, "Braille Production Formats That Will Counteract Rising
Costs," Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 74:158-161 (April 1980).
4. United Nations. General Assembly, "Universal Declaration of Human Rights,'
Commission on Human Rights, Economic and Social Council (New York, 1949),
Article 27, paragraphs 1 and 2.
5 . Frank Kurt Cy Ike , ed . , Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped: An International Approach (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1979).
6. Frank Kurt Cylke, "International Co-ordination of Library Services for Blind
and Physically Handicapped Individuals: An Overview of IFLA Activities," Unesco
Journal of Information Science. Librarianship, and Archives Administration 1:242-
248 (October-December 1979).
423
Appendix
Free Matter:
Nearly a Century of Change
Judith M. Dixon and Alfred D. Hagle
The legislation allowing blind and handicapped persons to mail certain
materials as "Free Matter for the Blind and Handicapped" is well
known to us all. What is not so well known, however, is the fact that
this legislation has had a long and varied history. From its beginnings
in 1899, until the most recent changes in 1970, there have been at least
fourteen significant additions, deletions, or revisions to the original
law. Through the years, these changes have gradually liberalized pro-
visions of the law to allow more kinds of material and equipment to be
mailed, more groups of persons to enjoy these mailing privileges, and
greater reductions in cost.
On March 2, 1899, "an act regulating the postage on letters written
by the blind" was passed by Congress. This piece of legislation was
the first such postal law benefiting blind persons in the United States,
although Canada had begun free mailing for its blind citizens the
previous year. The United States law allowed blind persons to mail
unsealed letters in raised characters at third-class rather than first-class
rates.
In 1904, books, pamphlets, and other reading matter in raised
characters could be mailed on "loan" by public institutions for the
blind, public libraries, and blind readers (returning material to these
institutions). These were the first materials to go completely free of
charge. Certain weight limits, however, were imposed. Single vol-
umes could weigh no more than ten pounds and packages could weigh
no more than four pounds. The word loan had the effect of precluding
publishers of embossed materials from taking advantage of free mail-
Judith M. Dixon is head of the Consumer Relations Section, National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped, Library of Congress, Alfred D, Hagle is public resources officer with the same
organization. Reprinted, with permission, from the Braille Forum 21:4-9 (August 1982).
425
That All May Read
ing. Even at this early date, the prohibition on the presence of adver-
tising was specifically mentioned in the law.
Eight years later, publishers of magazines, periodicals, and regu-
larly issued publications in raised characters were added to the list of
those who could mail materials free, with the condition that no sub-
scription fee could be charged. Publishers were required to file a
written application in order to comply with the provisions of the free
mail law.
In 1924, organizations, institutions, and associations for the blind,
not conducted for private profit, were added to the list of those who
could mail material free. These, and previously mentioned organiza-
tions, were permitted to mail "holy scriptures or part thereof" free of
charge. However, if material was "furnished" to recipients at cost,
the charge for mailing was one cent per pound. This was the first time
the v/ordfurnished appeared instead of loan , permitting a reduced
charge for mailing scripture materials that were to be sold (at cost) to
the recipient. The word loan was retained with respect to all other
kinds of reading material.
The 1904 act was amended again in 1934 to add "sound reproduc-
tion records" to the kinds of materials which could be mailed free.
The weight limit on each container was twelve pounds.
In 1937, nonprofit organizations, institutions, and associations
were permitted to charge a subscription fee for their periodicals.
Periodicals could be mailed for one cent per pound if furnished to a
blind person at cost.
The next year, federal or state agencies, public libraries, nonprofit
organizations or associations for the blind, and blind persons (sending
items for repair) were permitted to mail "reproducers for sound re-
production records" at a cost of one cent per pound. The equipment
had to be owned by a government, library, or other instiUition. An
organization had to submit satisfactory proof to the Post Office that it
was a repair facility. The weight limit on books was increased to
fifteen pounds, allowing twenty records to be mailed in a single con-
tainer instead of the eighteen which could be mailed at the twelve-
pound limit.
In 1941 , braille writers and other appliances were added to the list
of materials that could be mailed at a cost of one cent per pound , by
426
Appendix
these same groups, provided they were sent to or returned from repair.
Fourth-class weight hmits were applied. Eight years later, the condi-
tion of "repair" was removed from the mailing of braille writers.
Braille writers could now be mailed at a cost of one cent per pound at
the time of purchase.
In 1952, the limitation on weight and size of sound reproducers,
other appliances, and their parts was increased to a total of seventy
pounds and one hundred inches in length and girth combined.
According to a notice published in the Federal Register in 1954, a
maximum of fifteen pounds six ounces of raised printed matter for the
blind could be mailed free in international mail, by surface mail only,
to all countries except Argentina, Brazil. Spain and its possessions,
and the Philippines. It is interesting to note that two years earlier, in
1952, exemption from postal charges for "impressions in relief for the
blind" was adopted by the Brussels Congress of the Universal Postal
Union (UPU), of which the United States is a member. Embossed
letters between blind persons could not travel free internationally; this
exemption had to await the approval of the next Congress of the UPU
in Ottawa in 1957. Subsequent international postal treaties allowed
free mail to go to all countries.
In 1958, the limitations on who may mail "books or pages thereof"
were removed, allowing "any person" to mail these materials free of
charge. This change permitted volunteers and others to mail books and
parts of books free of charge, provided the materials were being sent
to blind persons at no cost to the blind person.
In 1962, nonprofit libraries, schools, publishers, and organizations
and associations for and of the blind were allowed to mail material in
"sight-saving type (fourteen point or larger)." Braille writers and
other appliances were permitted to be mailed free, as well as paper,
tape, and other materials for the production of reading matter, as long
as this material remained the property of state governments, public
libraries, nonprofit organizations, or blind individuals. Material that
was to be sold to blind persons at cost was still subject to a mailing
charge of one cent per pound. This was the first time the law contained
the words of the blind, thus allowing organizations of blind persons to
mail their publications, newsletters, etc. , without charge. In this law,
the phrase sound recordings was substituted for sound reproduction
^11
That All May Read
record, all references to "holy scriptures" were eliminated, and the
phrase blind persons was substituted for "the blind."
Five years later, physically handicapped persons were added to the
list of those who may mail materials free. All requirements that mate-
rial be the property of governments, libraries, etc., were eliminated.
The list of materials that can be mailed free was expanded to include
the following: typewriters; educational or other materials; devices that
were especially designed or adapted for blind or handicapped people;
and musical scores. With the passage of this 1967 law, for the first
time, blind persons were permitted to mail unsealed letters in braille,
large type, or recorded form without cost. "Free Matter for the Blind
and Handicapped" was specified as the only indicia to be used. The
requirement for publishers to apply for reduced rates was eliminated.
In 1970, P.L. 91-375 amended the previous law by deleting the
phrase prescribed by the Postmaster General in reference to weight
and size restrictions. Since that time, weight and size limitations have
remained constant at the levels set in 1952.
Sections 3403-3405 of Title 39 of the United States Code ( 1976)
which is the law that stands today, are as follows:
§3403. Matter for blind and other handicapped persons
(a) The matter described in subsection (b) of this section (other than matter mailed
under section 3404 of this title) may be mailed free of postage, if —
(1) the matter is for the use of the blind or other persons who cannot use or read
conventionally printed material because of a physical impairment and who
are certified by competent authority as unable to read normal reading
material in accordance with the provisions of sections 135a and 135b of
title 2;
(2) no charge, or rental, subscription, or other fee. is required for such matter
or a charge, or rental, subscription, or other fee is required for such matter
not in excess of the cost thereof;
(3) the matter may be opened by the Postal Service for inspection; and
(4) the matter contains no advertising.
(b) The free mailing privilege provided by subsection (a) of this section is extended
to —
(1) reading matter and musical scores;
(2) sound reproductions;
(3) paper, records, tapes, and other material for the production of reading
matter, musical scores, or sound reproductions;
(4) reproducers or parts thereof, for sound reproductions; and
(5) braille writers, typewriters, educational or other materials or devices, or
428
Appendix
parts thereof, used for writing by, or specifically designed or adapted for
use of, a blind person or a person having a physical impairment as de-
scribed in subsection (a)( 1 ) of this section .
§3404. Unsealed letters sent by blind or physically handicapped persons
Unsealed letters sent by a blind person or a person having a physical impair-
ment, as described in section 3403(a)( 1) of this title, in raised characters or
sightsaving type, or in the form of sound recordings, may be mailed free of
postage.
§3405. Markings
All matter relating to blind or other handicapped persons mailed under section
3403 or 3404 of this title, shall bear the words "Free Matter for the Blind or
Handicapped", or words to that effect specified by the Postal Service, in the
upper right-hand corner of the address area.
Specific regulations which interpret this law to the postmasters
around the nation are contained in the Domestic Postal Manual, Part
135.
429
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506
Index
Index
AAWB. See American Association of Work-
ers for the Blind
Academic libraries: accessibility problems,
328-33; coordination of services, 341-43.
evaluation tools, 327; funding problems,
332-34, 340-41; services, 334-40
Act to Promote the Education of the Blind, 2,
296
Administration on Aging, 42, 55
AFB. See American Foundation for the Blind
Affirmative action programs, 46-47, 347-48
Age Discrimination Act of 1975, 59
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of
1967,58
ALA. See American Library Association
Alderson, Carol, 8-9
Alessios, Alison B., 9
American Association of Instructors of the
Blind, 5, 6, 72,95,98-99
American Association of Workers for the
Blind (AAWB), 5, 6, 72, 95, 98-100
American Braille Press, 96
American Brotherhood of Free Reading for
the Blind, 7
American Foundation for the Blind (AFB),
42, 77, 95, 208; braille activities, 72, 179;
catalogs, 73, 84, 96, 1 16, 195, 248; estab-
lishment of, 6, 72; library standards role,
1 1; research, 6-7, 10-1 1, 73, 75, 79-80,
131, 160-63, 179; services of, 248;
talking-book activities, 8, 79-90, 93, 106,
112, 113, 115, 117-20, 166, 169,236
American Foundation for the Overseas Blind,
110, 124,411
American Library Association (ALA), 6, 7,
73,76,77, 125, 189; blind reader services
role, 2-5, 8-9, 70-72, 126; children's
services activities, 13, 139, 140; institu-
tional service activities, 12, 13; library
standards role, 10-12, 17-18, 144, 164,
192; physically handicapped service ac-
tivities, 12, 13, 16; research, 8-9,
talking-book activities, 82-83
American Printing House for the Blind
(APH), 113, 153; braille activities, 1-2,7,
67, 121, 174-75; catalogs, 96, 246-47,
297;children'smaterials, 50, 67, 100-01,
246-47, 296-97; services of, 246-47,
296-97; talking-book activities, 85, 1 18,
166, 169,236
American Textbook Publishers Institute, 150
APH. See American Printing House for the
Blind
Arborelius, Brita, 396
Architectural and Transportation Barriers
Compliance Board, 60
Architectural barriers, 60, 291-92, 328-32
Architectural Bamers Act of 1968, 60
Art materials, 275-76
ASCLA. See Association of Specialized and
Cooperative Library Agencies
Association for the Blind, Sweden, 395
Association of Hospital and Institution Li-
braries, 12, 13, 17
Association of Specialized and Cooperative
Library Agencies (ASCLA), 18. See also
Association of State Library Agencies
Association of State Library Agencies, 18,
277-78
Atkinson, Robert, 7, 68
Audiobooks. See Talking-book materials
Austin Books, 389
Australia, 183, 383-84, 393, 416
Automation, 181-89, 276, 299-302
Barbier code, 240
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, 18, 164
BBC. See British Broadcasting Corporation
BBR. See Braille Book Review
Beddoes, Michael P. , 262
BEH. See Bureau of Education for the Handi-
capped
Bell, Loma, 394
Bibliographic Retrieval Services, Inc. (BRS),
183, 198
Bibliographies, 183, 193, 196-98, 236,
299-302. See also Catalogs
Bibliotekstjanst (Btj), 395, 396
Blickensderfer, Joseph P., 219
Blind population, 27-30, 255
Blind rehabilitation centers, 40-41
Bliss, James C 260
Book Publishers Bureau, 91
Books for the Adult Blind project. See Proj-
ect, Books for the Adult Blind
Book stands, 267
507
Index
Boorstin, Daniel J, 219
Boston Line Type, 1
Boston Public Library, 2
Braille, Louis, 1,239
Braille Authority of North America, 209
Braille Authority of the United Kingdom, 209
Braille Book Bank, 247
Braille Book Review (BBR). 96. 116, 138,
148, 151, 195-96.236
Braille Committee of Passaic, 1 14
Braille Instimte of America, 7, 75-76
Braille materials, 7, 109, 1 10; cassette,
177-78, 265, 401-02, 418; catalogs,
96-99, 116, 138, 151-52, 182, 195-96,
236-37, 247, 388; children's. 139-40,
150, 242, 244, 296-97, 302, 398-99, 415;
circulation. 97. 98. 100; display devices,
177-78, 265-66, 401-02, 418; foreign-
language, 190; foreign libraries. 387-91 ,
398, 414-18; international standardization,
209, 4 16- 19; introduction of, 1-2;
magazines, 96-97, 99, 150. 175, 190,
191, 241, 244, 249, 387, 388, 390,
401-02; manufacturers, 235-36, 246-47,
296. 302; music, 192-94, 248, 249;
PRINT/BRAILLE, 150, 195, 243;
print-to-, 262, 399; production. 67-68,
189. 235-36, 240, 273, 275; regional
services, 99-100, 122, 124, 142, 273-74;
selection of, 77, 81, 100-05. 115-16,
149-5 1 , 241 , 244; technological develop-
ment. 121. 173-81, 193.264-66,399-
402, 417-19; textbooks, 247; type standar-
dization. 5. 8. 69, 95-100; user charac-
teristics, 158, 163,221-22,228,240-41;
veterans' services, 6; volunteer-produced,
68-70. 72, 79, 95-97. 100. 102. 104-05,
113, 149, 151, 152, 189, 193,201-05,
235,240,241,247,275
Braillemboss, 176
Braille Transcribing Section, 104-05, 108.
See also Braille Transcribing Service
Braille Transcribing Service, 70, 78-79, 82,
95-97, 99, ICO. See also Braille Trans-
cribing Section
Bramley. Gerald, 404
Bray, Roberts, 219
Brigham Young University, 335
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 393
British Talking Book Service for the Blind,
395,396,403
BRS. See Bibliographic Retrieval Services.
Inc.
Btj. See Bibliotekstjanst
Buckley, Cozetta White, 366
Bureau for the Blind and Visually Handi-
capped. 47
Bureau for the Education and Training of the
Handicapped. 51
Bureau of Education for the Handicapped
(BEH), 299-300
Calibre (Cassette Library for the Blind and
Handicapped), 396-97
California State Library, 72
Campbell, Charles, 73
Canada, 385-86
Carnegie, Mrs. Andrew. 73
Carnegie Corporation, 73, 80
Carnegie Library. 121
Carroll, C.Edward. 368
Casey, Genevieve, 359, 368
CASP. See Comprehensive Annual Services
Program
Cassette materials: braille, 177-78, 265,
401-02, 4 18; catalogs. 196, 247; chil-
dren's, 244; foreign libraries, 208. 387.
388. 395-98. 403; magazines, 249, 388,
398; music, 193, 194, 249; production,
189. 190. 236, 238; selection, 239;
technological development, 166-73, 401;
textbooks, 247; users and, 158; volunteer-
produced. 166-67
Catalogs: braille materials, 96-99, 1 16, 138,
151-52, 182. 195-96. 236-37. 247, 388;
cassette materials, 196, 247; central, 125;
children's materials, 151-52, 196; com-
puterized, 182, 183. 195-98; foreign-
language materials. 191 . 196; foreign li-
branes. 388. 395-96. 415-16; history. 71,
72, 78; international standardization, 208,
415-16; large-print, 151. 152. 194-96,
236, 242, 247. 393; music. 193. 194, 249;
reading aids, 248; regional support serv-
ices, 197-98; school media services, 19.
292; talking-book materials, 83, 84, 96,
113. 116. 138. 151-52. 182. 195-96,
236-37, 247, 388; union, 97, 126, 153,
182, 208, 237, 388, 414-16; volunteer-
produced books. 246-47, 297
Catholic University of America, The 354
CCTV. See Closed-circuit television systems
Central Catalog of Volunteer-Produced
Books. 246-47. 297
Central Republic Library for the Blind. Mos-
cow. 208
508
Index
Chamberlain. Mary, 4-5, 8
Chicago Public Library, 72, 74, 313-14
Chief Officers of State Library Agencies
(COSLA),277
Children's Book Council, 150
Children's materials: braille, 139-40, 150,
242, 244, 296-97, 302, 398-99, 415;
catalogs, 151-52, 196; eligibility for, 10,
222, 242; foreign libraries, 398-99, 404,
415; large-print, 244-45; magazines, 150,
244; production, 242; regional library ac-
tivities, 244; research on, 364-65; selec-
tion, 139-40, 150-51, 242-44, 293-94;
sources, 67-68, 244, 296-303; special
formats, 243; talking books, 139-40,
150-51,242-44
Christian Record Braille Foundation, 251
Cincinnati Library Society for the Blind, 3
Circulation, 97, 98, 100, 183-85, 223, 226
Circulation Services, 108
CivilRightsActof 1964, 59
Clapp,VemerW., 98-99
Clarke and Smith Industries, 395, 398
Cleveland Public Library, 12. 75
Closed-circuit television systems (CCTVs),
258-59,400-01
Clovemook Home and School for the Blind,
68, 199
Clovemook Printing House for the Blind
(CPH),7, 18,68, 177, 178,235
CMLS. See Comprehensive Mailing List
System
Commission on Standards and Accreditation
of Services for the Blind (COMSTAC),
11-12, 144
Committee for Purchase from the Blind and
Other Severely Handicapped, 48
Committee for Purchase of Products and
Services of the Blind and Other Severely
Handicapped, 48
Committee for the Purchase of Blind-Made
Products, 48
Committee of 118:20
Committee on Libraries in Institutions for
Dependents, Defectives and Delinquents,
12
Committee on Library Service to Exceptional
Children, 13, 16
Committee on Library Work with the Blind,
3,4,6,8-9,70,71.82-83.87. 125. 126.
See also Round Table on Library Service to
the Blind— ALA
Committee on Sensory Devices, 1 17
Committee to Review Standards for Library
Service to the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, 17-18
Comprehensive Annual Services Program
(CASP).54
Comprehensive Mailing List System
(CMLS). 185-86
Computer systems. See Automation
COMSTAC. See Commission on Standards
and Accreditation of Services for the Blind
Conferences on library services for the blind,
123-30, 143
Congress. U.S. 7, 8. 65-67, 71 , 75-76, 81 ,
83,85,86,88-89, 106, 111, 121-22, 130,
134-45, 141, 154-56,272,276-77,
279-80, 298, 425-29. See also Federal
aid; specific legislation
Congressional Budget and Impoundment
Control Act of 1974, 26,27
Consultant program. 283-84
Consumer Relations Section, 157, 246
Coordinating Center Foundation, 388
Copyright, 88-91, 105, 150, 187, 191,250,
395,420-21
Comer, George, 117
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 57
COSLA. See Chief Officers of State Library
Agencies
Council of Books in Wartime, 107
CPH. See Clovemook Printing House for the
Blind
CraiI,Joe,75,76
Crippled Children's Program, 41-42
Cuadra Associates, Inc., 185
Cylke, Frank Kurt, 219, 319
Dalton, Phyllis, 355
Davie, Judith F, 367
Demonstration collections, 281
Denmark, 387, 398, 400, 417
Department of Agriculture, 43
Department of Commerce, 46
Department of Education, 44, 52, 56, 303,
348
Department of Education Organization Act,
52
Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS),39,42, 52,53,59, 348
Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, 130,303
Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment, 43
Department of Labor, 46
509
Index
Department of the Treasury, 59
Department of War, 12
Deposit collections, 142-43, 273
Descriptive Cataloging Division, 125
Detroit Public Library, 2
Dickinson, Asa Don, 4
Dictionary of Braille Music Signs. 1 94
Disability benefits. See Income security
Disability glossary, 305-08
Disabled Living Foundation, 393
Discrimination, 58-60
Discs. See Flexible-disc materials; Talking-
book materials
Division for the Blind: braille program,
113-16, 121, 149; catalogs, 125, 126,
138, 151-52; children's services, 139-40,
150-51; funding. 111, 141; library service
standards role, 144; music services, 153;
name adopted, 110-11; operations manual,
126, 137, 143; physically handicapped
services, 154-56; regional system,
121-25, 141-45; research studies, 137-41:
selection policy, 115-16, 127-29,
138-40, 149-52; talking-book services,
112-20, 125, 129, 145-49, 154;
technological development, 1 18-21 ,
137-38, 146-47; volunteers, 112-15, 149.
See also Division for the Blind and Physi-
cally Handicapped; Division of Books for
the Adult Blind; National Library Service
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped;
Project, Books for the Adult Blind
Division for the Blind and Physically Handi-
capped, 156. See also Division for the
Blind; Division of Books for the Adult
Blind; National Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped; Proj-
ect, Books for the Adult Blind
Division of Books for the Adult Blind,
104-10. See also Division for the Blind;
Division for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped; National Library Service for
the Blind and Physically Handicapped;
Project, Books for the Adult Blind
Division of Libraries for Children and Young
People, 139
Dresang, Eliza T. , 368-69
Edison, Thomas, 80
Education. See Children's materials; Library
schools; School media services; Student
services; Textbooks
Educational Broadcasting Facilities and Tele-
communications Demonstration Act of
1976,57
Education for All Handicapped Children Act
of 1975, 16,51,287,347
Education of the Handicapped Act, 51
Elderly assistance programs, 55-56
Electronic low-vision aids, 258-59, 400-01
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of
1965,50,51,303
Employee Retirement Income Security Act of
1974,36
Employment programs, 44-49, 58-59,
347-48
England. See Great Britain
Enoch Pratt Free Library, 4
Episcopal Guild for the Blind, 251
Equal Employment Opportunity Commis-
sion, 58
Evans, Luther, 130,219
Eva-Tone, Evatype, Inc., 236
Everett. Ethel, 92
Evergreen School for the Blind, 68-70
Eyeglasses, 257-58
Exotech Research and Analysis, Inc., 179
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 49
Federal aid: architectural accessibility re-
quirements, 60; blind and physically
handicapped, 26-27; discrimination ban,
58-60; elderly, 55-56; employment op-
portunity, 47-49; food and nutrition,
42-43; health care, 37-42; housing,
43-44; income security, 30-37; overview,
25-26; reading services, 56-58; re-
habilitative services, 44-47; shortcomings,
61-62; social services, 52-55; special edu-
cation, 49-51
FerstI, Kenneth Leon, 367-68
Finland, 386, 395
504 legislation. See Rehabilitation Act of
1973
Flexible-disc materials, 169, 172, 189, 193.
195, 238, 249, 250. See also Talking-book
materials
Florida Council for the Blind, 122
Florida State University, 355-56
Food and Drug Administration, 150
Food and nutrition programs, 42-43
Food Stamp Act of 1964,43
Ford Foundation, 1 1 3
Foreign-language materials, 190-91. 196,
250
510
Index
Foreign libraries: braille materials, 387-91,
398, 414-18; catalogs, 388, 395-96,
415-16; clientele, 381; large-type materi-
als, 389-94; national libraries, 386-91;
national surveys, 383-86; talking-book
materials, 208. 387, 388, 394-99, 403;
technological developments, 259, 399-405
Foundation for Audio Research and Services
for Blind People, 401
Fraser, M. Doreen E., 367
Free Library of Philadelphia, 2-3
Free matter, 3-4,6-8,74,81.89. 152, 154,
235, 241; history of, 425-29; international,
421-22
Gallaudet College, 51
Garin process, 70
Gaze, 253
General reading materials: braille, 239-41;
catalogs, 237; children's, 242-45; dis-
tribution, 236; large-type, 241-42; pro-
duction, 235-36; selection, 234-35; talk-
ing books, 237-39
General Revenue Sharing Act, 53
Georgia State Library , 122
Giffm, Etta Josselyn, 66, 2 19
Goldsmith, Selwyn, 402
Goldthwaite, Lucille A., 5, 8, 72, 84, 96, 98
Great Britain: handicapped service survey,
384-85, 389-99; library services, 259,
389-90, 402-04; materials, 391-99;
technological development, 400-01
Hadley School for the Blind, 247
Hannigan, Margaret, 16
Health and Rehabilitative Library Services
Division (HRLSD), 17, 18
Health Care Financing Administration, 38, 39
Health care programs, 37-42
Health Services Administration, 41
Heie, Bjorg, 385
Heintze, Ingeborg, 395
HHS. See Department of Health and Human
Services
Higher Education Act of 1965, 16
HilKLister, 7,75, 76
Hjaelmiddlesentralen, 259
Homebound services, 3, 12-13, 16, 387, 402
Home Review Group, 275
Hoover, Herbert, 65, 81
Hospital services. See Institutional services
House Appropriations Committee, 130
House Committee on the Library, 7
Housing programs, 43-44
Howe, Samuel Gridley, 1
Howe Memorial Press, 1,68, 153, 176
HRLSD. See Health and Rehabilitative Li-
brary Services Division
Hynes, Arleen, 355
IBM, 174
IFLA. See International Federation of Library
Associations
Illinois State Library, 314-15
Income security programs, 30-37
Indexing. See Voice indexing
India, 390
Indiana State Library, 4
Individual Retirement Account (IRA), 37
Innovative Systems Research, 170
Institute on Library Service to an Aging
Population, 13
Institutional services, 12-14, 16,29, 155,
162, 163,223,381,387,388
Interagency Coordinating Council, 59
Intedibrary loans, 185, 187, 239, 250, 313,
415,419
Internal Revenue Code, 36-37
International Association of Music Libraries,
194
International Conference on English Braille
Grade 2, 209
International cooperation, 106, 110, 194,
207, 41 1-12; book exchanges, 190-91,
208; braille format standardization,
416-19; collection inventories, 415-16;
copyright, 420-21; developing countries,
414-15; information exchange, 422; mail-
ing, 22 1 -22; recording format standardi-
zation, 419-20
International Federation of Library Associa-
tions (IFLA), 194, 207-08, 393, 401 , 402,
404,413-14
IRA. See Individual Retirement Account
Irwin, Robert B., 6, 73-74, 80
Jahoda, Gerald, 356
Japan, 390-91
Japanese Library Association, 209
Javits, Jacob K., 48
Jennison, Keith, 15
Jewish Braille Institute of America, 251
Johnson, Lyndon B., 153
Keller, Helen, 7, 68, 83
Kennedy, John F., 153
511
Index
Kent State University, 356
Kentucky School for the Blind, 67
Keogh Plan, 36
Kleber, Jackson Oscar, 80
Knight, John, 93
KRM. See Kurzweil Reading Machine
Kulas Foundation, 193
Kurzweil, Raymond, 177
Kurzweil Computer Products, 177
Kurzweil Reading Machine (KRM), 57, 177,
261-62,276,296,399-400
LA. See Library Association
Large-type materials, 259; catalogs, 151 ,
152, 194-96, 236, 242. 247, 393; chil-
dren's, 244; foreign libraries, 389-94, 396;
free mailing, 152, 241; introduction of, 15;
magazines, 242, 249, 393; music, 192-94,
242, 248, 249; production, 241-42,
391-94; regional libraries, 274; research
on, 364, 394; selection, 242; volunteer-
produced, 192, 241
Larsen, John, 387
Learning disabled, 161, 162,223
Legal blindness, 28-29
Librarians' Advisory Group, 115, 1 16
Library Association (LA), Great Britain,
392-94, 400-04
Library media centers. See School media
services
LibraryofCongress, 9, 78,87, 116, 140-41;
blind reader program, 3, 7-8, 56, 65-67,
69-72, 75, 78, 104; children's program,
10; conferences, 9-10, 123-30, 143;
copyright role, 91; disposal regulations,
133; funding, 7, 8, 66, 75, 141; interna-
tional activities, 41 1-14; physically handi-
capped program, 14, 153-54; regional ad-
ministration, 16, 135; reorganization,
107-11, 153-56; user eligibility, 10, 14,
112, 153-54, 221-23. See also Braille
Transcribing Section; Braille Transcribing
Service; Division for the Blind; Division
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped;
Division of Books for the Adult Blind; Na-
tional Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped; Project, Books
for the Adult Blind; Service for the Blind
Library schools: handicapped services pro-
grams, 350-59, 378-80; research ac-
tivities, 360-63. 399
Library services: academic libraries. 334-42;
foreign, 381-91, 402-03; history of, 2-11;
international cooperation, 41 1-23; local,
316-22; national surveys, 383-86; net-
work system, 310-17; physically handi-
capped, 12-13; private, 18-19; regional li-
braries, 280, 313-16; school media serv-
ices, 294-96; standards, 10-12, 17-18,
144-45, 164; subregional libraries, 280
Library Services and Construction Act
(LSCA), 13-14, 56, 155-56, 272, 303,
314
Library Service to the Blind and Physically
Handicapped Section, 17-18
Library War Service Committee, 71
Linville, John, 260
Loan Division, 108, 110
London, Mrs. Jack, 71
Long Island University, 356-57
Low-vision aids, 257-59, 400-01
LSCA. See Library Services and Construc-
tion Act
Lucioli, Clara, 12
Lutheran Library for the Blind, 251
McClaskey, Harris C. , 355, 357
McCrum, Blanche P., 127-28
McGuffey, Margaret D., 219
Machine-lending agencies, 135-37, 155,
186, 188,282-83
MacLeish, Archibald, 107, 219
Magazines: braille, 96-97, 99, 150, 175,
190, 194,241,244,249,387,388,390,
401-02; cassette, 249, 388; catalogs,
195-96; children's, 150, 244; distribution
of, 185-86, 236; foreign-language materi-
als, 190, 250; foreign libraries, 387, 388,
390, 397-98, 401-02; large type, 242,
249, 393; music, 190, 193-94, 249; pro-
duction, 235; program announcements, 83,
84, 116, 138, 148, 151, 166, 169, 195-96,
236; selection, 157, 190,229-30,239,
241 , 242, 244. 249, 250; talking books,
86, 150, 166, 169, 170, 190, 193-94,236,
239,244,387,388,397-98
Magnifiers. 258
Mailing lists, 185-86
Mailing privileges, 3-4, 6-8, 74, 8 1 , 89,
152, 154, 235, 241; history of, 425-29;
international , 42 1 -22
Market Facts, Inc., 163-64, 184, 224, 229
Marshall, Margaret R., 404
Martin Luther King, Jr. , Memorial Library,
156
512
Index
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
175, 176,260-61
Maternal and Child Health Program, 41-42
Medicaid, 38-40
Medicare, 37-38
Meyer, Herman H. B.,219
Migel Memorial Library, 248
Missouri School for the Blind, 1 , 4
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy
Mitre Corporation, 180-81
Monroe, Margaret E., 359, 369
Moon type, 2, 240, 389
Moore, Mrs. William H, 80
Moorhead State College, 336
MSCs. See Multistate centers
Multistate centers (MCSs), 199-200, 203,
204,281-82,312-13
Mumford, L. Quincy, 130, 219
Musical Mainstream. 249
Music and Musicians, 194, 249
Music Article Guide, 193-94
Mu.sic materials, 3, 152-53, 192, 248-49;
braille, 192-94, 248, 249; catalogs, 193,
194, 249; children's, 242; foreign libraries,
387; large-type materials, 192-94, 242,
248, 249; magazines, 190, 193-94, 249;
talking books, 153, 192-94. 248, 249
National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion, 150
National Braille Association (NBA), 247
National Braille Press (NBP), 177,235
National Bureau of Standards, 85, 88, 1 14,
117-19
National Center on Educational Media and
Materials for the Handicapped
(NCEMMH),300
National Commission on Libraries and In-
formation Services, 19
National Committee for Recording for the
Blind, Inc. (RFB), 1 13-14. See also Re-
cording for the Blind, Inc.
National Committee on Special Recording,
112
National Federation of the Blind (NFB),
247-48
National health insurance, 42
National Industries for the Blind, 48
National Industries for the Severely Handi-
capped, 48
National Information Center on Educational
Media (NICEM), 300
National Institute of Handicapped Research,
46
National Institutes of Health, 46
National Instructional Materials Information
System (NIMIS), 299-302
National libraries, 386-91
National Library for the Blind (NLB), Great
Britain, 389
National Library for the Blind Gift Fund, 1 1 1
National Library for the Blind, Inc. (NLB),
66, 109-11
National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped (NLS): adminis-
trators of, 219; catalogs, 195-97, 236-37,
249; children's program, 242-45, 297-99;
consultant program, 283-84; consumer
relations, 157-65, 228; evaluation of, 18,
164; foreign-language materials, 250;
funding, 156, 298; general reading materi-
als, 234-45; growth of, 226, 235, 298; in-
ternational cooperation, 207-09; large-type
materials, 242; library school survey,
350-53, 373, 378-80; music program,
192-94, 248-49; name adopted, 156; net-
work structure, 279-84, 310-16; opera-
tional procedures, 181-89; production pro-
gram, 235-40, 242; public education pro-
gram, 157, 205-07; religious materials,
250-51; selection policy, 157, 189-92,
227-30, 234-35, 239, 241; student and
professionals services, 245-48; support
services, 197-200, 273, 283-84;
technological development program, 157,
165-80; usereligibility, 223, 310; user/
nonuser surveys, 158-64; volunteer pro-
gram, 200-05, 235-36. See also Division
for the Blind; Division for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped; Division of
Books for the Adult Blind; Project, Books
for the Adult Blind
National Listening Library, 403
National Public Radio, 192
National Science Foundation, 57
National surveys, 383-86
National Technical Institute for the Deaf, 51
NBA. See National Braille Association
NBP. See National Braille Press
NCEMMH. See National Center on Educa-
tional Media and Materials for the Handi-
capped
Neisser, Emma R, 3
Nelson Associates, Inc., 158-60, 205, 224,
228
513
Index
Netherlands, 387-89,417
Network libraries: acquisitions, 239, 241,
242; advisory role, 281; assessment of,
283-84; catalogs, 237; children's services,
244, 245; demonstration collections, 281;
deposit collections, 28 1 ; distribution to,
236; public education programs, 245; re-
gional, 279-80, 313-16; religious materi-
als, 250; subregional, 280-81 . See also
Regional libraries; Subregional libraries
Network system: development of , 141-45;
services, 3 1 0- 1 6; structure of , 279-83;
support services, 283-84. See also Dem-
onstration collections; Deposit collections;
Machine-lending agencies; Mullistate cen-
ters; National Library Service for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped; Regional li-
braries; Subregional libraries
New England Asylum for the Blind, 1
New Orleans Public Library, 122
Newspapers, 397-98. See also Magazines
New York Free Circulating Library for the
Blind, 3
New York Institution for the Blind, 1
New York Point, 1, 100,240
New York Public Library, 3, 4, 15, 72, 74,
84,96,98, 113, 114
New York State Library for the Blind, 75
NFB. See National Federation of the Blind
NICEM. See National Information Center on
Educational Media
Nichols, MaudeG.,219
NIMIS. See National Instructional Materials
Information System
NLB. See National Library for the Blind,
Great Britain; National Library for the
Blind. Inc.
NLS. See National Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped
NLSNET, 181. 185. 187-89
Nonh Carolina State Library, 245
Norway. 259, 385
Nuffield Auxiliary Fund, 392, 394
Nuffield Talking Book Library, 395
Nursing home services. See Institutional
services
Nutrition for the Elderly program, 42
OASDI. See Old Age. Survivors, and Dis-
ability Insurance
OCLC. See Online Computer Library Center
Office of Education, 155
Office of Human Development Services, 53
Office of Scientific Research and Develop-
ment, 1 17
Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
(OASDI), 30-34
Older Amencans Act of 1965, 42, 55-56
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1 98 1 ,
39,41-42
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC),
300
Open-reel tape materials, 147-49. 189, 190,
387
Operational procedures: automation, 181-89,
276; catalog and bibliography production,
182-83; circulation, 183-85; copyright
clearance, 187; machine accountability,
186; mailing lists, 185-86; NLSNET,
187-89; production control, 181-82; re-
gional libraries. 276; support services,
197-200; surplus books, 186-87
Optacon Reading Machine, 57, 259-61, 400
Optical low-vision aids, 257-58
Package libraries, 199
Packaging, 80, 86, 169
Page turners, 180, 267
Patterson. Donald G.. 219
PED-30, 177
Pennsylvania Association for the Blind, 120
Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of
the Blind, 1
Pension Reform Act of 1974, 36
Pensions. See Income security
Periodicals. See Magazines
Perkins School for the Blind, 1 , 68, 72
Phi Beta Honorary Sorority, 192
Philadelphia Home Teaching Society and
Free Circulating Library for the Blind, 3
Physically handicapped: foreign library serv-
ices, 402-03; income security programs,
32-36; library service eligibility, 12-13,
153-56. 222, 223; reading aids, 171,
1 80-8 1 , 266-67, 403; user characteristics,
160-63,224,227
PIRATES. (Prison Inmates Recording
and Transcribing Educational Materials for
the Sightless), 275
Poland, 390
Pollak, Simon, 1
Potter. C. Stanley. 251
Pratt, Ruth. 7, 75
Pratt-Smoot Act, 7, 14, 56. 65, 75-76, 81 ,
106
Prescott, Katherine, 17
514
Index
PRINT/BRAILLE, 150, 195,243
Printing: compositor tapes, 175, 264,
417-18; embossed systems , 1 -2 , 239-40;
international type standardization, 209,
416-18; large-type, 241; manufacturers,
235-36, 246-47. 296, 302; techniques,
240, 264-66, 399, 400, 417-19. See also
Braille materials
Print-to-raised-character devices, 177-78,
259-60,262,399,400
Print-to-speech devices, 177,260-62
Processing Department, 125
Production control , 181-83
Professionals services, 245-48
Project. Books for the Adult Blind; adminis-
trators of, 219; braille services, 77-79,
95-99, 101-03; establishment of, 7, 76;
regional service, 77-78, 93-94; selection,
77; talking-book services, 81-83,85-88,
90, 91 . See also Division for the Blind;
Division for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped; Division of Books for the
Adult Blind; National Library Service for
the Blind and Physically Handicapped
Projected books, 180
Public education programs, 154-55, 157,
159-62,205-07,245
Public Health Service, 41 , 46
I^iblic libraries: blind reader services, 2-4,
73-75; districting, 7 1 -72; network system
and, 317-22
Public Library Manifesto, 209. 402, 415
Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton
County, Ohio, 16
Public Library of Nashville and Davidson
County, 275
Public Reference Service. 108
Public Welfare Amendments of 1962. 53
Putnam, Herbert. 66. 103. 219
Radio Reading Services, 57
Radio reading services. 251-52. 275, 393
Radio Reading Services for the Blind and
Other Handicapped Persons. 252
Randolph. Jennings. 47
Randolph-Sheppard Act, 47-48
RCA, 80
RCA Service Company. 145
Readers' Advisory Group. 115. 116
Reader-Transcriber Registry. 247
Reading: definition. 253; physical handicaps
and, 254-56. 266-67; services. 56-58.
251-52, 342. 391; visual handicaps and,
253-56
Reading aids; direct access devices. 177-78,
257-62, 399-401; electronic low-vision,
258-59, 400-01; foreign developments,
403-04; indirect access devices. 262-66;
optical low-vision. 257-58; physically
handicapped. 266-67. 403-04; print-to-
raised-character devices, 177-78, 259,
399, 400; print-to-speech devices, 177,
260-62, 399-400; types of, 256-57
Reading Material for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped. 182-83
Reading materials: foreign-language, 250;
foreign libraries, 391-99; general reading,
234-45; music, 3, 152-53. 190-94. 242,
248-49, 387; radio, 251-52; religious,
250-51; school media services, 296-303;
sources. 233-34; student and pro-
fessionals. 245-48. See also Bibliog-
raphies; Braille materials; Catalogs; Chil-
dren's materials; Large-type materials;
Selection; Talking-book materials
Reading Room Division. 108
Recorded materials. See Cassette materials;
Flexible-disc materials; Open-reel tape
materials; Talking-book materials
Recording for the Blind. Inc. (RFB). 18. 183,
247.250.251.302-03
Red Cross, 69. 70. 79. 96-98, 104. 1 14,
203-04
Reference books. 230
Reference circulars. 242. 244, 246, 250-51
Reference Department, 107-08
Reference Section, 245-46
Reference services, 249
Regional libraries: automation, 276; braille
materials. 99-100. 122. 142. 273-75;.
catalogs. 125-26. 182-83; central depos-
itory system. 123-25; children's materials,
140; circulation, 131-32, 184-86;
copyright clearance role, 187; description,
279-80; establishment of, 7-9; facilities,
132-33, 273-74; funding, 121-22, 130,
134-35, 155-56, 272. 276-77. 279-80;
geographical service areas, 94. 97; mailing
lists. 185-86; operating procedures.
1 3 1 -35 . 276; physically handicapped
services, 14-15, 155-56; public education
activities, 205-07; reorganization, 108,
110-11, 121-23. 130. 135. 141-45;
selection. 115. 116. 127-29; services.
272-76. 280. 281, 313-16; staff. 133-34.
515
Index
Regional libraries (continued)
274; standards, 10, 144, 164; state library
agency-administered, 271-78; support
services, 143-44, 184-86, 197-200;
talking-book materials, 86-87, 122, 124,
135-37, 142, 147, 148, 273, 274; user
survey, 10-11; volunteer program,
272-73, 275
Rehabilitation, 38, 40-41 , 44-47
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 16, 44-46, 51 ,
57-60, 327, 334, 347-50
Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services, and
Development Disabilities Amendments of
1978,45-46,57-59
Rehabilitation Services Administration
(RSA), 44-47, 57-58
Religious materials, 250-51
Research: braille, 178-79; doctoral disserta-
tions, 362, 365-68; faculty papers, 362,
368-70; foreign, 394; library school,
360-63, 370-71 , 374-78, 399; library
school survey, 350-53, 373, 378-80;
master's theses, 362, 364-65; music, 194;
nonuser characteristics, 160-63, 226-27,
229; service standards study, 164; student
papers, 362-64; user characteristics,
158-60, 163-64, 224, 228-29. See also
Technological development
Retirement benefits. See Income security
Revenue sharing, 26
RFB. See National Committee for Recording
for the Blind, Inc.; Recording for the
Blind, Inc.
Rider, Gertrude T. , 66-70, 2 1 9
Rinehart, Mary Roberts, 71
RNIB. See Royal National Institute for the
Blind
Roberts, Martin A, 98, 219
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 83, 84
Round Table of Libraries for the Blind-
IFLA, 208, 209, 401, 414-22. See also
Working Group of Libraries for the Blind
Round Table on Library Service to the
Blind-ALA, 10, 17, 144. 5ee a/so Com-
mittee on Library Work with the Blind
Royal National Institute for the Blind
(RNIB), 389-90, 395, 396, 400
RSA. See Rehabilitation Services Adminis-
tration
Rubin, Rhea, 356
St. Dunstan's,395,400
St. Elizabeth's Hospital, Washington, D.C.,
354-55
St. John, Francis R., 10, 131-41
St. John's University, Jamaica, New York,
358
SAL See Sigma Alpha Iota
Sales, Terry Hayes, 92
School media services: architectural barriers,
291-92; attitude problems, 289-91;
background, 287; growth, 288-89; handi-
capped child characteristics, 293; materi-
als, 296-303; program services, 294-95;
reading interests and, 293-94; research on,
366-67
Schwegmann, George W., Jr., 219
Scourby, Alexander, 92
Scratch 'n Sniff books, 243
Sears, 145
Selection: braille materials, 77,81,1 00-05 ,
115-16, 149-5 1 , 24 1 , 244; children 's
materials, 139-40, 150-51, 242-44,
293-94; general policy, 189-92, 227,
229-30; general reading materials,
234-35; large-type materials, 242;
magazines, 157, 190,229-30,239,241,
242, 244, 249, 250; religious materials,
250; talking-book materials, 81, 1 15-16,
150, 238-39, 244; user preferences, 157,
159, 162,228-29
Sensory Aids Evaluation and Development
Center, 175
Service for the Blind, 72, 75, 78, 82, 100,
219
Severe visual impairment, 29-30
Shaw, Ralph, 11
Sheppard, Morris, 47
Shipping. See Mail privileges; Packaging
Sigma Alpha Iota (SAI), 192, 204
Smith, XenophonP.,219
Smoot, Reed, 7, 76
Social Security Act: Title II, 30-34, 44-45;
Title V, 41-42; Title XVI, 34-36, 44-45;
Title XVIII, 37-38; Title XIX, 38-40;
Title XX, 53-54
Social Security Amendments of 1972, 32, 34
Social Security Amendments of 1977, 31, 33,
34
Social Security Disability Amendments of
1980, 33, 36
Social Security programs. 30-36
Social service programs, 52-55
S16
Index
SSI. See Supplemental Security Income for
the Aged, Blind, and Disabled
Standard English Braille, 95-99, 240
Stark, Martha, 8
State and Local Assistance Act of 1972, 26
State and Local Fiscal Assistance Amend-
ments of 1976, 59
State Department, 41 1
State library agencies, 14-16, 271-72,
276-78
State Library Commission of Maryland, 4
State University of New York, Albany. 353
State University of New York, Buffalo, 337,
342
Student services, 245-48
Students' library, 100-01
Sturt. Ronald, 397, 398
Subregional libraries, 15, 16, 156, 163-64,
273,275,280-81,314-16
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for the
Aged, Blind, and Disabled, 34-36. 39
Surplus books. 186-87, 208, 41 1
Sweden. 395-98,400-03
Swingle. Vivian B., 364
Synthetic speech, 177, 260, 400
Tactile print, 1-2, 5, 239-40. See also
Braille materials
Talking-book materials: catalogs, 83. 84. 96.
113. 116, 138, 151-52, 182. 195-96.
236-37, 247. 388; children, 139-40,
150-51 , 242, 244. 296. 302-03; circula-
tion of, 87-88; copyright. 88-91 . 1 13; de-
velopment of, 8, 79-81; eligibility for,
1 12; foreign-language materials, 190, 191,
250; foreign libraries, 387, 388, 390,
394-99. 403; funding. 94. 106; interna-
tional activities, 414-15, 419-20; intro-
duction of, 81-83; machine distribution,
83-88, 1 16-20, 136, 186, 273; machine
parts and repairs, 89-90, 105-06, 114-15,
129, 136-37, 145-46; magazines, 86, 150,
166, 169, 170, 190. 193-94. 236. 239.
244, 387, 388, 397-98; manufacturers,
296, 302-03; music. 153, 192-94, 248,
249; narrator's role. 92-93; open reel.
147-49, 189, 190; production, 88-89,
109-10. 125, 189, 236-39. 263-64. 273,
335-36; regional services, 86-87, 122,
124, 135-37, 142, 147, 148, 273, 274; re-
ligious materials, 251; selection, 18,
115-16, 150. 238-39. 244; technological
development, 137-38, 146-47, 157,
166-73. 262-64. 401; textbooks, 247,
335-36; users and, 158-59, 222, 228; vet-
erans'services, 106-07; volunteer-
produced, 111-15, 147, 149, 166-67,
189, 203, 236, 239, 335-36. See also Cas-
sette materials; Flexible-disc materials;
Machine-lending agencies; Open-reel tape
materials
Talking Book Topics (TBT), 83, 84, 1 16,
138"; 148, 151, 166. 169, 195-96,236
Talking Newspaper Association of the United
Kingdom (TNAUK), 397-98
Tarkington, Booth, 71
Tax exemption benefits, 36-37
Technological development: braille, 121 ,
173-81, 193,264-66,399-402,417-19;
cassettes, 166-73, 401; combination
machine, 172; experimental materials,
179-81; flexible-disc systems, 169-70;
foreign, 399-405; international coopera-
tion, 418-19; music materials, 193; optical
aids, 257-59, 400-01; physically handi-
capped devices, 266-67, 403-04; print-
to-raised-character devices, 259-60, 262,
399, 400; print-to-speech devices, 260-62,
399-400; talking books, 137-38, 146-47,
157. 166-73. 262-64. 401; voice index-
ing, 170-71
Telebook project, 180-81
Telephone Pioneers of America, 19, 145-46,
201
Television magnifiers, 258-59, 400-01
Textbooks, 1-2. 100-01, 112-15,230,
246-47, 249. 250. 335-36
Textobrail, 262
Thomas, James L., 370
Thomsen, Paulli, 419
Thorpe, Frederick, 392
TNAUK. See Talking Newspaper Associa-
tion of the United Kingdom
Topics in Review, 196
Trader. Florence, 3
Trader, Georgia, 3
Transicon, 399
Triformation Systems, Inc. (TSI), 177, 235
Truman, Harry S, 109
TSI. See Triformation Systems, Inc.
Ulverscroft Books, 15, 392
UNESCO, 208, 209, 402, 414, 415
Uniform Type Committee, 5
United Kingdom. See Great Britain
Universal Braille Press. 7, 68
517
Index
University of Alabama, 353
University of CaJifomia, Berkeley, 354
University of Denver, 355
University of Hawaii, 356
University of Maryland, 357
University of Minnesota, 357
University of South Carolina, 358
University of Southern California, 300-01
University of Washington, 358-59
University of Wisconsin-Madison, 359
Users: application process, 233; braille mate-
rials, 158, 163, 221-22, 228, 240-41; cas-
sette braille survey, 178; characteristics,
158-60, 163-64, 184, 224, 240-41; eligi-
bility requirements, 10, 12-13, 153-56,
221-23, 242, 310; increase of, 223-24,
226; music materials, 194; potential,
160-63, 226-27; public education program
role, 157; referral sources, 159-61, 163,
221; research program role, 157; selection
and, 157, 159, 228-29; students and pro-
fessionals services, 246-48; subject prefer-
ences, 159, 163, 228-29; talking-book
materials, 222, 228, 238; technological de-
velopment role, 157
USSR, 391
Utley,H. M.,2
VA. See Veterans Administration
Velleman, Ruth, 356-57
Veterans Administration ( VA) , 40-4 1,57.
See also Veterans Bureau
Veterans Bureau, 6, 70, 71. See also Veter-
ans Administration
Veterans services. 6, 12,40-41,68-71,
106-07, 115
Vinson, Rhonda Jo, 364-65
Vision, 253-54
Visual impairment, 255-56
Vocational books, 107
Vocational Rehabilitation Acts, 44
Voice indexing, 170-71,230
Volunteer services: braille transcription,
68-70, 72, 79, 95-97, 100, 102, 104-05,
113, 149, 151, 152, 189, 193,201-05,
235,240,241,247,275;children's mate-
rials, 242; guides to, 72, 152, 202,
246-47, 297; large-type materials, 192,
241; music materials, 153, 192, 193,202,
204; overview, 200-05; regional library
use. 272-73, 275; role of, 18, 19,235;
school media services, 292, 295; talking-
book machine repair. 19, 145-46,201;
talking-book recording, 111-15, 147-49,
166-67, 189, 203, 236, 239, 335-36;
training, 69-70, 201-02, 284
Volunteer Services for the Blind, Inc. (VSB),
114, 177, 199,235,247
Voorus. Robert A., 219
VSB. See Volunteer Services for the Blind,
Inc.
VSE Corporation, 178
Wagner-O'Day Act, 48, 49
Wait, William B., 1
War Book Panel, 107
War Imperative Books, 107
Warren, George Garry, 365
Wayne County Library, 72
Wayne State University, 359
WCWB. See World Council for the Welfare
of the Blind
Western Michigan University, 359
White House Conference on Libraries and
Information Services, 19-20
Working Group of Libraries for the Blind,
207-08, 413-14. Seealso RoundTableof
Libraries for the Blind— IFLA
Works Progress Administration (WPA),
83-86, 89. 90, 105
World Council for the Welfare of the Blind
(WCWB), 208, 209, 41 1, 414, 419, 421
WPA. See Works Progress Administration
WPLN Talking Library, 275
Wright State University, 335-36
Xavier Society for the Blind, 251
XESS System, 186
Young, John Russell, 65, 219
Zharkov,D. S..422
518
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1984- siS-eSS : 18989
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